SENTENCE  CONNECTION 
IN  TACITUS 


BY 

CLARENCE  W.  MENDELL,  Ph.D. 


A  Thesis  presented  to  the  Faculty  of  the  Graduate  School  of  Yale  University 
in  Candidacy  for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy 


NEW  HAVEN  :  YALE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 
London:    Henry  Frowde 
Oxford  University  Press 

MCMXI 


Copyright,  191 1, 

By 

YALE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 


EXCHANGE 


THE   TUTTLE,    MOREHOUSE   i  TAYLOR   COMPANY 


PREFACE 


For  the  original  suggestion  which  led  to  the  writing  of 
the  present  book  and  also  for  much  helpful  comment  and 
criticism,  my  thanks  are  due  and  most  heartily  given  to 
Professor  Edward  P.  Morris  of  Yale  University.  To  him 
belongs  all  the  credit  for  the  conception  of  sentence  connec- 
tion which  underlies  the  work  and  which  was  set  forth  in 
his  book,  "On  Principles  and  Methods  in  Syntax."  A 
doctoral  dissertation  presented  at  Yale  in  1902  by  Dr. 
Abraham  R.  Brubacher,  dealing  with  the  sentence  connec- 
tions in  Herodotus,  has  been  suggestive  in  matters  of 
method  and  arrangement.  I  am  further  indebted  for 
practical  assistance  to  Dr.  Samuel  B.  Hemingway. 

New  Haven, 
January,  191 1. 


/•'  OF-  THE 

OF 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION.  i. 

CHAPTER  I,    No  Expressed  Connection. 

A.  Rapid  Narrative.  B.  Inventories,  i.  Summary 
of  events.  2.  Summary  account  of  a  man's  life. 
3.  Description.     C.  Logical  Connection 1-18 

CHAPTER    II.    Connection    Expressed    in    the    First 
Clause, 

A.  Anticipation  of  a  Quotation,  i.  Explicit  verb  of 
saying.  2.  Demonstrative  pronoun,  adverb  or  phrase. 
3.  General  phrase  of  saying.  B.  Question  and  Answer. 
C.  Anticipation  in  Special  Words,  i.  Licet.  2.  Sane. 
3.  Modo.  4.  Imperatives.  5.  (Ceterus)  and  alius.  6. 
Correlatives.  D.  Anticipation  of  Narrative  (not  Quo- 
tation). I.  Explicit  announcement  of  narrative.  2. 
Demonstrative  word  or  phrase.  3.  Use  of  a  vague  or 
extremely  concise  word.  E.  Anticipation  by  Use  of 
Negative  Statement,  i.  Indefinite  word  in  the  negative 
clause.  2.  Vague  statement  in  the  negative  clause.  3. 
Apparently  irrelevant  statement  in  the  negative  clause.      19-47 

CHAPTER  III.    Connection   Expressed  in   the   Second 
Clause. 

A.     Repetition,     i.    Actual    repetition    of    a    word. 

2.  Virtual  repetition  of  a  word  by  means  of  a  syno- 
nym,   demonstrative    pronoun,    relative    pronoun,    etc. 

3.  Repetition  of  an  element  of  meaning  by  means  of 
another  part  of  speech,  a  summary  word,  or  a  partitive 
word.  4.  Repetition  implied.  B.  Contrast,  i.  Contrast 
essential  in  the  meaning  of  contrasted  words.  2.  Con- 
trast due  purely  to  the  context.  3.  Border  line  cases.  4. 
Contrast  of  words  in  obvious  categories.  5.  Contrasted 
persons.  6.  Words  whose  meaning  implies  contrast. 
7.  Contrasted  Adverbs.  C.  Anticipation  Due  to  the 
Incomplete  Meaning  of  a  Word.  i.  Verbs  with  incom- 
plete meaning,  such  as  compounds  with  ad,  or  con  and 


vi  Contents. 

also  sequor  and  respondeo.  2.  Comparatives.  3.  Spe- 
cial words:  Alius,  (ceterus),  reliquus,  par,  similis.  D. 
Adverbs  and  Adverbial  Phrases,  i.  Marking  progress 
of  the  narrative.  2.  Showing  repetition.  3.  Showing 
incompleteness  of  meaning.  4.  Special  adverbs  :  certe, 
nimirum,  quippe,  scilicet.  E.  Functional  Changes  in 
the  Verb.  i.  Change  of  person.  2.  Change  of  tense. 
3.  Change  of  mode.    F.  Parenthetical  Clauses 48-153 

CONCLUSION     153-158 


INTRODUCTION, 

The  standard  text  books  of  Latin  grammar,  such  as 
Kiihner,  Schmalz,  Draeger  and  Lane,  agree  in  the  statement 
that  primitive  language  consisted  of  disconnected  sentences 
and  that  development  in  language,  especially  in  written 
language,  was  marked,  first,  by  the  coordination  of  sentences 
and  then  by  the  subordination  of  one  sentence  to  another. 
This  advance  was  accomplished  by  the  development  of 
coordinating  and  subordinating  conjunctions  which  became 
to  such  an  extent  the  regular  means  of  connecting  one 
sentence  with  another  that,  in  the  developed  language,  all 
sentences  not  so  connected  are  considered  exceptional  and 
equivalent  to  sentences  with  some  one  of  the  regular  coor- 
dinating or  subordinating  conjunctions.  This  theory, 
whidh  is  generally  accepted,  means  that,  in  the  primitive 
speech,  sentences  were  put  side  by  side  without  any  connec- 
tion between  them,  but  that  when  the  language  was  fully 
developed  every  sentence  was  regularly  connected  with  the 
one  next  to  it  by  the  use  of  a  conjunction  which  might  mark 
either  coordination  or  subordination.  In  other  words,  we 
must,  on  this  theory,  look  to  the  conjunctions  for  all  the 
connection  between  consecutive  sentences.  Kuhner  (IL  2, 
§  178)  says :  Die  parataktischen  Satzverbindung  ist,  wie 
es  sich  von  selbst  versteht,  die  urspriingliche.  Die  Satze 
werden  anfanglich  an  einander  gereiht,  ohne  Riicksicht,  ob 
sie  logisch,  d.  h.  hinsichtlich  des  Gedankens,  gleich  oder  ver- 
schieden  sind.  Bis  zu  dieser  Periode  aber  reicht  unsere 
Literatur  nicht  zuriick;  denn  auch  die  altesten  Schrift- 
stiicke,  die  auf  uns  gekommen  sind,  kennen  schon  die  hypo- 
taktischen  Satzverbindung.  Also  (IL  2.  §  150)  :  So  lange 
der  Mensch  auf  der  untersten  Stufe  seiner  geistigen  Ent- 
wickelung  steht,  spricht  er  seine  Gedanken  in  einzelnen 
Satzen  nach  einander  aus,  und  unbekiimmert,  ob  die  Gedan- 
ken in  einem  innerem  Zusammenhange  zu  einander  stehen 


ii  Introduction. 

oder  nicht,  stellt  er  dieselben  in  gleicher  Form  da.  Drseger 
(§310)  says:  Nur  ausnahmsweise  werden  Satztheile  und 
Satze  asyndetisch  zusammeng-estellt,  weit  haufiger  sind  sie 
durch  et,  -que,  atque  oder  ac  verbunden.  Brugmann  (Kurze 
Vergleichende  Grammatik  der  Indogermanischen  Sprachen, 
§§88711.)  also  says  distinctly  that  originally  there  were 
only  independent  sentences  (Hauptsatze)  and  that  subordi- 
nation developed  from  a  few  of  these  which  had  a  thought 
relation,  though  no  grammatical  relation,  with  an  adjoining 
sentence.  He  continues :  War  also  auf  diese  Weise  durch 
die  verschiedenen  Gedankenverhaltnisse,  die  zwischen  zwei 
Satzen  obwalten  konnen,  der  Gegensatz  von  Parataxe  und 
Hypotaxe  von  jeher  gegeben,  so  kommt  es  uns  hier  doch  in 
erster  Linie  auf  die  grammatischen  Ausdrucksmittel  fiir 
den  Nebensatz  als  solchen  an,  und  in  dieser  Beziehung  ist 
unzweifelhaft,  dass  die  hypotaktische  Verbindungsform 
aus  der  parataktischen,  die  Nebensatzform  aus  der  Haupt- 
satzform  entstanden  ist.  He  also  shows  several  relations 
which  could  and  did  exist  in  the  primitive  speech  between 
consecutive  sentences  without  any  visible,  grammatical  sign 
of  this  relation.  For  example,  he  shows  that  one  sentence 
may  indicate  a  completion  of  the  idea  of  the  first  and  be 
really  nothing  more  than  the  object  of  the  verb  of  the  first 
sentence,  or  again,  that  the  second  may  express  the  result 
of  a  condition  stated  by  the  first  but  without  any  grammati- 
cal sign  of  connection.  He  then  shows  the  development  of 
the  relative  pronoun  and  of  conjunctions  to  express  sub- 
ordination in  the  primitive  speech.  Kiihner  also  {II.  2. 
§  150)  states  that  there  are  cases  in  which  sentences 
coordinate  in  form  are  subordinate  in  thought.  But  all  of 
the  writers  cited — and  they  fairly  represent  the  generally 
accepted  views — deal  with  such  cases,  when  they  occur  in 
the  developed  language,  as  exceptional.  Normal  develop- 
ment was  from  sentences  placed  in  succession  with  no  sort 
of  connection  between  them,  through  various  stages,  to 
sentences  connected  by  conjunctions;  when  this  point  was 
reached,  consecutive  sentences  not  connected  by  conjunc- 
tions were  exceptions. 


Introduction.  iii 

Morris  has  pointed  out  (On  Principles  and  Methods  in 
Syntax,  Chapter  VI.)  that  there  is  a  fallacy  at  the  bottom 
of  this  theory.  The  development  in  language  is  not  from 
sentences  without  connection  to  sentences  with  connection 
but  from  unexpressed  to  expressed  connection.  Whenever 
a  rational  man  speaks  or  writes  one  sentence  after  another, 
there  is  connection  between  the  two.  At  least  in  his  own 
mind,  the  two  sentences  are  necessarily  related,  and  if  his 
meaning  is  conveyed  to  the  man  who  hears  or  reads  them, 
then  the  connection  is  in  some  way  or  other  expressed  in 
the  sentences  themselves.  How  clearly  it  is  expressed  must 
depend  on  the  means  which  the  speaker  or  writer  uses  to 
express  it,  but  regardless  of  the  success  with  which  the 
relation  is  conveyed  to  another,  it  always  exists  in  the 
thought  which  he  tries  to  express.  There  is  therefore  a 
distinction  between  the  thought  connection  of  one  sentence 
with  another,  a  relationship  existing  first  in  the  mind  of  the 
speaker,  and  the  formal  connection  which  is  the  expression 
of  this  thought  relation  in  words,  spoken  or  written.  The 
former  is  always  present  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker  or 
writer ;  the  latter  aims  to  reproduce  the  former  in  the  mind 
of  the  hearer  or  reader.  As  a  language  develops,  there  are 
more  and  more  adequate  means  of  accomplishing  this,  and 
in  written  language  we  have  the  complete  material  for 
studying  the  formal  connection  in  each  case ;  for  the  writer 
had  nothing  beyond  the  written  words  to  aid  him  in  convey- 
ing from  his  own  mind  to  that  of  the  reader  the  sense  of 
relationship  between  sentences.  This  is  not  true  of  the 
spoken  language  where  the  tone  and  accent,  for  instance, 
are  of  great  assistance  to  the  speaker.  However,  to  under- 
stand the  means  made  use  of  in  the  written  language  it  is 
necessary  to  at  least  consider  the  means  available  in  the 
spoken  language  which  precedes  the  written.  This  is  best 
treated  by  the  writers  who  have  considered  it  primarily  from 
a  psychological  rather  than  from  a  linguistic  point  of  view, 
especially  Wundt  (Volkerpsychologie,  I.  2,  pp.  305  ff.)  and 
Paul  (Principien  der  Sprachgeschichte,  pp.  99  ff.)  (of.  also 


iv  Introduction. 

Jolly :  Die  Einfachste  Form  der  Hypotaxis,  in  Curtius 
Studien,  VI.  pp.  215  ff,  and  Hermann :  Parataxis,  in  Kuhn's 
Zeitung,  ^;^.)  Paul  enumerates  the  means  of  connection 
which  he  recognized,  ranging  from  the  mere  placing  of 
words  in  succession,  through  such  aids  as  tone,  emphasis, 
and  tempo,  to  means  used  in  written  language  such  as 
inflection  and  subordinating  words.  In  the  spoken  language, 
emphasis  and  tone  are  very  frequently  quite  sufficient  to 
convey  the  desired  idea  of  connection;  in  fact  they  very 
seldom  leave  any  real  doubt.  But  when  the  same  sentences, 
whose  connection  is  perfectly  clear  with  the  help  of  the  tone 
of  voice,  are  written  down,  that  means  of  expressing  the 
connection  vanishes,  and  with  it  very  often  the  clearness  of 
the  connection  itself.  It  is  therefore  true  that  the  more 
primitive  forms  of  written  language  and  those  which  come 
nearer  to  the  spoken  language  are  the  ones  in  which  there 
is  the  least  expressed  connection.  But  with  the  loss  of 
the  vocal  means  of  expressing  connection  it  became  neces- 
sary to  devise  new  means  which  would  not  vanish  with  the 
writing  down  of  the  sentences,  and  with  the  development 
of  the  language  it  is  reasonable  to  look  for  the  development 
of  these  means  to  a  greater  and  greater  extent.  That  otte 
regular  method  only  should  have  developed  is  at  once  a 
suspicious  theory.  There  were  undoubtedly  many  means 
of  connection  already  in  use  in  the  spoken  language  which 
were  at  once  available  in  the  written,  and  in  addition  to 
these  arose  many  more.  Equally  without  doubt,  certain  ones 
of  these,  because  of  their  simplicity  and  usefulness,  were 
more  used  than  others  and  so  became  more  generally  recog- 
nized and  were  crystalized  into  more  fixed  forms  than  the 
rest.  Some  were  very  possibly  in  the  crystahzation  stage 
when  the  development  of  the  language  ceased.  It  is  at  any 
rate  apparent  that  there  must  be  great  difficulty  and  great 
danger  in  the  theory  which  holds  that  connection  by  means 
of  coordinating  and  subordinating  conjunctions  is  the  only 
regular  method,  while  all  others  are  exceptional  and  equiva- 
lent to  conjunctional  uses.     (Cf.  Kiihner,  II.  2.  §  177.  4,  a 


Introduction.  v 

discussion  of  the  various  conjunctions  "omitted"  in  such 
cases.)  The  difficulty  becomes  especially  apparent  in  the 
treatment  of  the  so-called  "causal  coordinating  conjunc- 
tions" such  as  ergo  and  igitur.  To  fit  the  theory,  they  must 
be  considered  conjunctions  of  one  sort  or  the  other,  for  they 
cannot  be  ignored  or  called  exceptions.  They  are  exactly 
as  legitimate  a  means  of  connection  as  et  or  ut.  But  they 
fit  into  neither  the  one  category  nor  the  other.  Lane 
(§  1688)  goes  to  the  extent  of  calling  them  not  conjunc- 
tions but  "words  denoting  inference" ;  he  admits,  however, 
that  simple  sentences  may  be  coordinated  by  them  and  also 
(§  1691)  by  pronominal  words  such  as  eo,  hinc,  or  inde. 
This  is  a  long  step  toward  the  acceptance  of  the  many 
means  of  connection  which  are,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  used. 
Having  made  it,  why  stop  at  that  point?  Why  is  it  not 
equally  true  that  demonstratives  and  demonstrative  words 
in  general  may  coordinate  simple  sentences  ?  Why  not  the 
repetition  of  words  and  many  other  similar  means?  These 
various  means  do  even  more:  they  often  express  the  sub- 
ordinate relation  of  one  sentence  to  another.  When  they 
are  sufficiently  worked  out,  there  may  be  less  precise 
boundaries  between  subordinate  and  coordinate  sentences, 
but  there  should  undoubtedly  be  a  better  understanding  of 
both.  Again,  even  when  all  the  "exceptions"  are  explained 
under  the  generally  accepted  theory,  there  are  left  the  cases 
of  so-called  parataxis  or  asyndeton,  the  cases  where  there 
is  apparently  no  expressed  connection.  These  are  regarded 
as  survivals  of  the  period  of  no  connection,  of  the  time 
when  disconnected  sentences  were  put  down  without 
thought  of  their  relation  to  each  other.  In  the  developed 
language,  they  are  therefore  looked  upon  as  anomalies. 
They  are  the  more  obvious  forms  of  parataxis,  such  as 
necesse  est  venias,  or  interjected  verbs,  like  credo. 
Undoubtedly,  these  do  come  near  to  the  spoken  language, 
but  the  reason  why  they  survive  in  the  written  is  that  the 
connection  is  absolutely  clear.  They  are  not,  therefore, 
anomalies.     They  are  examples  of  one  sort  of  connection 


vi  Introduction. 

by  the  side  of  many  others.  In  the  development  of  the  lan- 
guage, which  is  entirely  a  practical  matter,  those  means  of 
connection  which  were  sufficiently  useful  in  the  primitive 
stages,  naturally  survived  and  the  mere  fact  that  they  are 
comparatively  unchanged  in  the  developed  language  argues 
their  efficiency.  So,  when  we  find,  in  a  fully  developed 
language,  cases  where  no  special  word  marks  the  con- 
nection, we  should  not  consider  them  as  anomalous 
survivals,  but  as  cases  of  one  sort  of  sentence  connection. 
"It  is  raining.  I  am  not  going  out,"  is  as  indisputably 
clear  as  "It  is  raining;  therefore  I  am  not  going  out,"  or  as 
"Since  it  is  raining,  I  am  not  going  out."  Not  any  one  of 
these  three  expresses  any  more  clearly  than  the  others  the 
thought  connection  which  was  in  the  writer's  mind.  In 
general,  a  conjunction  is  primarily  added  to  make  clear  a 
connection  otherwise  obscure,  just  as  a  preposition  is  used 
or  not  used  with  the  ablative  case  according  as  the  meaning 
is  or  is  not  clear  without  it.  When  the  custom  of  using  it 
has  become  common  because  it  was  often  needed,  either  the 
conjunction  or  the  preposition  may  be  used  in  cases  which 
do  not  absolutely  require  it,  but  it  is  still  in  such  cases  a 
guide,  rather  than  an  essential  part  of  the  sentence. 

As  a  result  of  the  generally  accepted  theory  of  sentence 
connections,  the  conjunctional  uses  have  been  pretty 
thoroughly  worked  out,  especially  the  use  with  subordinate 
sentences.  It  remains  to  indicate  the  other  means  which 
exist  in  Latin  for  connecting  one  sentence  with  another  and 
to  make  them  familiar  by  a  mass  of  examples ;  then  to  show 
the  relations  of  the  various  means  to  each  other  through 
the  underlying  thought-connection,  and  by  this  study  to 
show  the  development  of  the  more  crystalized  forms  as 
they  are  found  in  the  developed  language.  To  make  such 
a  study  valuable,  account  must  be  taken  of  the  authors  of  all 
styles  and  of  all  periods,  of  the  more  colloquial  authors  like 
Plautus  and  Pliny  and  also  of  the  more  rhetorical  and 
finished  authors  like  Tacitus.  The  inscriptions  must  be 
carefully  studied  for  the  earlier  forms.    Throughout,  it  will 


Introduction.  vii 

be  evident  that  each  connection  is  not  made  by  the  use  of 
a  sing-le  means.  The  written  language,  in  its  attempt  to 
reproduce  the  thought-connection  in  the  mind  of  the  writer, 
may  make  use  in  a  single  case  of  many  means  and  it  may 
not  always  be  possible  to  say  which  is  the  main  one.  At 
other  times,  when  the  connection  seemed  to  the  writer  to 
be  obvious,  it  will  be  hard  to  detect  the  means  by  which  it 
is  expressed.  The  object  throughout  is  to  recognize  and 
make  familiar  as  many  as  possible  of  the  means  at  the  dis- 
posal of  a  Latin  writer. 

In  Tacitus,  it  would  be  foolish  to  look  for  many  survivals 
of  early  methods  of  sentence-connection:  there  will  be  no 
cases  where  the  relation  of  two  sentences  to  each  other 
lacks  clarity  because  the  means  to  express  it  are  undevel- 
oped. By  his  time,  the  language  had  been  fully  developed, 
and  Tacitus  especially  was  master  of  every  device.  This  is 
evident  in  every  sentence  and  the  fact  that  he  uses  the  so- 
called  subordinate  sentence  far  less  than  it  was  used  by 
Cicero  in  his  formal  writings,  makes  his  work  especially 
interesting  for  the  present  study.  Cicero  had  used  most 
extensively  the  conjunctional  method  of  expressing  con- 
nection and  developed  it  to  the  greatest  efficiency.  Tacitus 
marks  a  reaction  from  this  and  a  corresponding  develop- 
ment of  the  other  means  for  expressing  the  same  relations. 
In  the  high  development  of  rhetorical  uses,  Tacitus  is  very 
nearly  unique.  But  it  is  of  course  the  means  which  already 
existed  in  the  language  that  Tacitus  uses  in  this  rhetorical 
way.  He  did  not  create  the  means.  Before  an  historical 
understanding  of  the  whole  subject  can  be  attained,  a  mass 
of  evidence  is  necessary  covering  all  periods  and  all  styles. 
This  paper  proposes  to  furnish  the  material  from  Tacitus. 
I  shall  classify  as  far  as  possible  all  the  means  of  connection 
that  I  recognize,  but  I  shall  naturally  lay  most  emphasis  on 
the  less  familiar  types ;  the  universally  recognized  conjunc- 
tional uses  will  be  either  passed  over  or  merely  noted.  This 
paper  is  not  the  exposition  of  a  theory,  but  a  collection  of 
evidence  eventually  to  be  of  use  in  such  an  exposition.    The 


viii  Introduction. 

theory  cannot  fail  to  emerge  even  in  such  a  collection,  but  it 
cannot  be  demonstrated  by  evidence  from  one  author  or 
from  one  period. 

In  presenting  the  material  from  Tacitus,  I  have  followed 
an  obvious,  formal  arrangement,  dividing  the  cases  cited 
into  three  main  groups  as  follows:  first,  a  comparatively 
small  group  containing  cases  in  which  there  is  no  expressed 
connection  between  two  consecutive  sentences ;  second,  a 
larger  group  of  cases  in  which  the  expressed  connection 
lies  in  the  first  of  the  two  sentences ;  third,  a  group  much 
larger  than  the  other  two  combined,  composed  of  cases  in 
which  the  expressed  connection  lies  in  the  second  sentence. 
The  subdivisions  can  be  better  discussed  under  each  sepa- 
rate group. 

The  text  used  is  that  of  Halm's  fourth  edition  in  the 
Teubner  text  series  (1905  and  1907).  I  have  employed 
the  following  abbreviations :  Ag.  for  The  Agricola ;  Ann. 
for  The  Annals ;  D.  for  The  Dialogus ;  G.  for  The  Ger- 
mania;  H.  for  The  Histories.  Roman  numerals  indicate 
books  of  The  Annals  or  Histories ;  the  first  Arabic  numeral 
in  each  case  indicates  the  chapter;  the  second,  the  line  of 
the  chapter  within  which  the  quotation  begins. 

Obviousl}^  it  will  be  impossible  to  give  any  accurate 
statistics  of  the  number  of  times  that  a  given  type  of  sen- 
tence connection  occurs:  the  question  is  too  subjective  and 
the  boundaries  between  different  types  are  far  from  being 
hard  and  fast.  The  question  of  main  and  subordinate 
means  of  connection  in  each  case  would  also  complicate  the 
matter.  I  have,  however,  always  stated  the  fact  whenever 
I  have  cited  all  the  examples  of  a  given  type  that  I  have 
found.  In  all  other  types  I  have  tried  to  give  at  least  a  gen- 
eral idea  of  the  frequency  with  which  each  one  is 
employed. 


NO  EXPRESSED  CONNECTION. 

The  chapter  heading,  "No  Expressed  Connection,"  is  not 
altogether  accurate.  It  has  already  been  stated  in  the 
Introduction  that  there  is  always  connection  between  two 
consecutive  sentences  and  that,  in  the  case  of  written  sen- 
tences, if  that  connection  is  conveyed  to  the  reader,  it  is 
surely,  somehow  or  other,  expressed  in  the  written  sen- 
tences. But,  because  of  the  accumulated  experience  which 
every  reader  has,  the  mere  juxtaposition  of  two  sentences 
suggests  relation  between  them.  To  this  extent,  then, 
expressed  connection  is  always  present,  but,  when  this  is 
the  only  means  of  expression  used,  it  cannot  be  said  to  lie 
in  any  specific  element  of  either  sentence,  and  in  this  sense 
the  two  sentences  may  be  said  to  be  without  expressed  con- 
nection. They  may  be  left  so  only  when,  in  the  written 
language,  the  loss  of  the  vocal  means  of  expressing  con- 
nection, such  as  tone  and  emphasis,  has  not  obscured 
the  sense  of  the  thought  connection.  Even  then,  they  are 
not  necessarily  so  left.  The  established  custom  of  employ- 
ing express  connectives  may  lead  to  their  use  even  where 
they  are  not  necessary.  But  there  remain  a  considerable 
number  of  instances  in  which  the  only  connection  between 
two  consecutive  sentences  is  their  juxtaposition ;  in  other 
words,  in  which  there  is  no  expressed  connection.  These 
instances  consist  of  three  sorts :  The  first  is  that  in  which 
the  narrative  moves  with  such  rapidity  as  to  render  con- 
nectives unnecessary  or  even  detrimental;  the  mind  of  the 
reader  is  carried  along  with  the  rapid  narrative  and  the  suc- 
cession of  events  is  clearly  expressed  by  the  mere  juxta- 
position of  sentences.  The  second  type  comprises  cases 
of  inventory  of  one  sort  or  another :  lists  of  prodigies 
occurring  during  a  given  time,  of  events  during  a  given 


2  No  Expressed  Connection. 

period,  or  of  collected  decrees  of  the  senate ;  descriptions  of 
men,  of  a  place,  or  of  a  scene,  or  the  summary  account  of  a 
man's  life.  The  fact  that  each  sentence  in  such  collections 
belongs  to  an  inventory,  and  that  the  nature  of  the  inven- 
tor}^ is  reg-ularly  stated  at  the  beginning,  in  other  words, 
that  the  individual  sentences  are  parts  of  a  larger  whole, 
has  great  influence  in  making  juxtaposition  a  sufficient 
means  to  relate  the  individual  sentences.  The  third  division 
consists  of  cases  in  which  there  is  an  obvious  logical  con- 
nection between  two  consecutive  sentences,  so  clear  that  no 
specific  means  are  required  to  express  it. 


The  most  obvious  of  these  three  groups  is  that  in  which 
the  rapidity  of  the  narrative  serves  to  make  the  connection 
between  sentences  clear.  An  account  of  events  occurring 
practically  simultaneously  has  the  same  effect,  and  it  is  diffi- 
cult and  unprofitable  to  try  to  distinguish  between  the  two 
classes.  In  the  one,  the  thread  of  the  narrative  is  sufficient 
to  indicate  the  connection ;  in  the  other,  the  unity  of  time : 
but  the  two  run  into  each  other  and  are  not  essentially 
different.  For  instance,  in  Ann.  XV.  69.  9,  the  first  part  of 
the  sentence,  Ille  nihil  demoratus  exsurgit  et  omnia  simul 
properantur,  implies  that  the  connection  will  be  of  the 
second  sort,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  events  occur  simulta- 
neously. But,  in  the  second  part  of  the  sentence,  it  turns  out 
that  the  events  are  described  in  the  order  of  their  occur- 
rence, making  a  very  rapid  narrative:  clauditur  cubiculo, 
praesto  est  medicus,  abscinduntur  venae,  vigens  adhuc 
balneo  infertur,  calida  aqua  mersatur,  nulla  edita  voce,  qua 
semet  miseraretur.  I  have  not,  therefore,  made  any  dis- 
tinction between  cases  on  this  ground.  In  the  cases  where 
the  subject  is  the  same  in  both  sentences,  this  fact  in  itself 
forms  a  further  element  in  the  connection,  but  all  cases  in 
which  the  subject  is  actually  repeated,  are  omitted  here 
because  this  repetition  will  be  found  to  be  a  means  of  con- 


No  Expressed  Connection.  3 

nection  so  widely  used  that,  when  it  occurs,  it  is  likely  to 
be  the  leading-  element  in  the  connection.  Such  cases  will 
be  considered  under  the  section  on  Connection  by 
Repetition.  The  frequency  with  which  there  occur  cases 
of  sentences  having  their  connection  in  the  rapidity  of  the 
narration  varies  widely  throughout  Tacitus.  In  the 
descriptive  portions  and  especially  in  the  Dialogus  they  are 
rare,  but  on  the  whole  they  form  a  very  numerous  group  of 
which  nearly  every  page  furnishes  some  example.  Ann.  II. 
28.  12  shows  a  case  in  which  there  is  very  rapid  narrative 
and  where  the  subject  remains  the  same  throughout:  Statim 
corripit  reum,  adit  consules,  cognitionem  senatus  poscit. 
It  is  true  that  the  knowledge  of  the  course  of  procedure 
under  the  circumstances  was  an  aid  to  the  Roman  reader 
toward  the  understanding  of  the  connections  in  this  sen- 
tence, but  the  fact  remains  that  they  are  clear  without 
mechanical  aid.  The  case  from  Ann.  XV.,  cited  above,  is 
a  good  example  of  the  cases  in  which  the  subject  changes. 
Further  examples  are: 

Ann.  II.  82.  18:  Ciirsant  per  urbem,  moliuntur  templorum  fores, 
etc.  Ann.  III.  20.  8:  Primoque  impetu  pulsa  cohorte  promptus  inter 
tela  occursat  fvigientibus,  increpat  signiferos,  etc.  Ag.  37.  10:  sequi 
vulnerare,  capere,  atque  eosdem  oblatis  aliis  trucidare.  (The  infini- 
tives in  this  case  and  in  most  of  the  following  cases  are  historical.) 
H.  III.  y2>-  3:  dux  segnis  et  velut  captns  animi  non  lingua,  non 
auribus  competere,  neque  alienis  consiliis  regi  neque  sua  expedire, 
hue  illuc  clamoribus  hostium  circumagi,  quae  iusserat  vetare,  quae 
vetuerat  iubere,  etc.  H.  I.  41.  3 :  Eo  signo  manifesta  in  Othonem 
omnium  militum  studia,  desertum  fuga  populi  forum,  destricta 
adversus  dubitantes  tela.  H.  I.  58.  i :  Igitur  laudata  militum  alacri- 
tate  Vitellius  ministeria  principatus  per  libertos  agi  solita  in  equites 
Romanes  disponit,  vacationes  centurionibus  ex  fisco  numerat, 
saevitiam  militum  plerosque  ad  poenam  exposcentium  saepius  adpro- 
babat,  raro  simulatione  vinculorum  f  rustratur.  Ag.  38.  2 :  Britanni 
palantes  mixtoque  virorum  mulierumque  ploratu  trahere  vulneratos, 
vocare  integros,  deserere  domos  ac  per  iram  ultro  incendere,  eligere 
latebras  et  statim  relinquere,  etc.  Ann.  II.  13.  2:  adit  castrorum 
vias,  adsistit  tabernaculis  fniiturque  fama  sui,  etc.  Ann.  II.  19.  2: 
Qui  modo  abire  sedibus,  trans  Albim  concedere  parabant,  pugnam 
volunt,    arma    rapiunt;     plebes    primores,    inventus    senes    agmen 


4  No  Expressed  Connection. 

Romanum  repente  incursant,  turbant.  Ann.  II.  23.  5:  simul  variis 
undique  procellis  incerti  fluctus  prospectum  adimere,  regimen 
inpedire.  Ann.  II.  25.  9:  Eo  promptior  Caesar  pergit  introrsus, 
populatnr,  excindit  non  ausum  congredi  hostem,  etc.  Ann.  II.  31.  3: 
cum  Libo  ipsis  quas  in  novissimam  voluptatem  adhibuerat  epulis 
excruciatus  vocare  percussorem,  prensare  servorum  dextras,  inserere 
gladium.  Ann.  III.  45.  10:  Ipse  inter  primores  equo  insigni  adire, 
memorare  veteres  Gallorum  glorias,  etc.  Ann.  IV.  25.  g:  hostibus 
contra  omnium  nesciis  non  arma,  non  ordo,  non  concilium,  sed 
pecorum  modo  trahi,  occidi,  capi.  Ann.  IV.  68.  20:  Ac  iam  ultro 
Sabinus  quaerere  Latiarem,  ventitare  domum,  dolores  suos  quasi  ad 
fidissimum  deferre.  Ann.  VI.  35.  9:  lamque  et  Albani  Hiberique 
prensare,  detnidere,  ancipitem  pugnam  hostibus  facere,  etc.  Ann. 
XL  37.  I :  Interim  Messalina  Lucullianis  in  hortis  prolatare  vitam, 
componere  preces,  nonnulla  spe  et  aliquando  ira,  etc.  Ann.  XII. 
12.  3:  Ac  tamen  quantum  sine  bello  dabatur,  revocare  priscum 
morem,  exercitare  legiones,  cura  provisu  perinde  agere,  ac  si  hostis 
ingrueret,  etc.  Ann.  XII.  32.  2:  Vastati  agri,  praedae  passim  actae, 
etc.  Ann.  XII.  34.  1 :  Ad  hoc  gentium  ductores  circumire,  hortari, 
firmare  animos,  etc.  Ann.  XII.  51.  6:  Ille  primo  amplecti  adlevare 
adhortari,  etc.  Ann.  XII.  54.  11:  Igitur  raptare  inter  se,  immittere 
latronum  globos,  componere  insidias  et  aliquando  proeliis  congredi, 
spoliaque  et  praedas  ad  procuratores  referre.  Ann.  XIII.  3.  17: 
Nero  puerilibus  statim  annis  vividum  animum  in  alia  detorsit: 
caelare,  pingere,  cantus  aut  regimen  equorum  exercere,  etc.  Ann. 
XIII.  14.  17 :  Simul  intendere  manus,  aggerere  probra,  consecratum 
Claudium,  infernos  Silanorum  manes  invocare  et  tot  inrita  facinora. 
Ann.  XIII.  16.  10:  Trepidatur  a  circumsedentibus,  diffugiunt  inpni- 
dentes,  etc.  Ann.  XIII.  18.  6:  At  matris  ira  nulla  munificentia 
leniri,  sed  amplecti  Octaviam,  crebra  cum  amicis  secreta  habere, 
super  ingenitam  avaritiam  undique  pecunias  quasi  in  subsidium 
corripiens,  tribunes  et  centuriones  comiter  excipere,  nomina  et 
virtutes  nobilium,  qui  etiam  turn  supererant,  in  honore  habere,  quasi 

quaereret  ducem  et  partes.     H.  I.  ig.  13:    Legati  quoque foeda 

inconstantia  nominati,  excusati,  substituti,  etc.  H.  I.  36.  9 :  prensare 
manibus,  complecti  armis,  conlocare  iuxta,  praeire  sacramentum, 
modo  imperatorem  militibus,  modo  milites  imperatori  commendare. 
H.  I.  45.  I :  Alium  crederes  senatum,  alium  populum :  ruere  cuncti 
in  castra,  anteire  proximos,  certare  cum  praecurrentibus,  increpare 
Galbam,  laudare  militum  iudicium,  exosculari  Othonis  manum,  etc. 
H.  I.  80.  14:  Resistentem  seditioni  tribunum  et  severissimos 
centurionum  obtruncant;  rapta  arma,  nudati  gladii;  insidentes 
equis  urbem  ac  Palatium  petunt.  H.  II.  12.  9:  tamquam  externa 
litora  et  urbes  hostium  urere,  vastare,  rapere  eo  atrocius,  quod  nihil 
usquam   provisum   adversum   metus.     H.    II.    15.    3 :     Caesi   vigiles, 


No  Expressed  Connection.  5 

perrupta  castra,  trepidatum  apud  navis,  donee  sidente  paulatim  metu, 
occupato  iuxta  colle  defensi,  mox  inrupere.  H.  II.  19.  11:  Solidati 
muri,  propugnacula  addita,  auctae  turres,  provisa  parataque  non 
arma  modo,  sed  obsequium  et  parendi  amor,  etc.  H.  II.  22.  7: 
Legionarius  pluteis  et  cratibus  tectus  subruit  muros,  instruit 
aggerem,  molitur  portas,  etc.  H.  II.  29.  2:  ipsum  invadunt,  saxa 
iaciunt,  fugientem  secuntur.  H.  II.  30.  3:  nolle  requiem,  non 
expectare  ducem,  anteire  signa,  urguere  signiferos;  rapido  agmine 
Caecinae  iunguntur.  H.  II.  56.  2:  Vitelliani  spoliare,  rapere,  vi  et 
stupris  polluere,  etc.  H.  II.  78.  I :  Post  Muciani  orationem  ceteri 
audentius  circumsistere,  hortari,  responsa  vatum  et  siderum  motus 
referre.  H.  II.  82.  5 :  Ipse  Vespasianus  adire,  hortari,  bonos  laude, 
segnes  exemplo  incitare  saepius  quam  coercere,  vitia  magis  amicorum 
quam  virtutes  dissimulans.  H.  III.  25.  17:  Simul  attollere  corpus, 
aperire  humum,  supremo  erga  parentem  officio  fungi.  H.  IV.  29.  13 : 
Ubi  sonus  molientium  aut  adpositae  scalae  hostem  in  manus 
dederant,  propellere  umbone,  pilo  sequi ;  multos  in  moenia  egressos 
pugionibus  fodere.  H.  IV.  49.  20 :  Vulgus  credulum  ruere  in  forum, 
praesentiam  Pisonis  exposcere;  gaudio  clamoribusque  cuncta  misce- 
bant,  indiligentia  veri  et  adulandi  libidine.  H.  V.  22.  7 :  Aliud 
agmen  turbare  classem,  inicere  vincla,  trahere  puppis;    etc. 

Throughout  these  examples  the  frequency  of  the  histori- 
cal infinitive  is  noteworthy.  This  construction  is  evidently 
a  mark  of  rapid  narrative  and  to  a  certain  degree  comes  to 
be  in  itself  a  guide  to  the  connection.  There  are  some 
doubtful  cases,  such  as  Ann.  IV.  22.  5 :  Non  cunctanter 
Tiberius  pergit  in  domum,  visit  cubiculum,  in  quo  reluctan- 
tis  et  impulsae  vestigia  cernebantur.  Refert  ad  senatum 
datisque  iudicibus  Urgulania  Silvani  avia  pugionem  nepoti 
misit.  The  preceding  sentence  described  the  murder  of 
Apronia.  She  was  thrown  from  an  upper  window  by  her 
husband.  The  domum  therefore  and  the  cubiculum  refer 
back  tacitly  to  this  preceding  sentence  and  this  common 
reference  helps  to  connect  each  with  the  other  as  well  as 
with  the  previous  statement.  Furthermore,  in  the  refert 
there  is  a  distinct  reference  to  what  has  gone  before,  and 
an  object  implied  though  not  expressed. 

Under  this  general  group  there  are  numerous  cases  in 
which  two  verbs  are  used  together  without  connective  to 
denote  two  actions   simultaneous   or   consecutive,   or   fre- 


6  No  Expressed  Connection. 

quently  to  express  more  fully  or  forcibly  a  single  idea. 
This  is  to  a  large  extent  a  mannerism  with  Tacitus  and  the 
second  verb  often  adds  practically  nothing.  Examples  of 
this  usage  are : 

Ann.  IV.  50.  18:  Cum  Sabinus  circumire,  hortari,  ne  ad  ambigua 
sonitus  aut  simulationem  quietis  casum  insidientibus  aperirent,  etc. 
Ann.  IV.  51.  5:  Eaque  prensare,  detrahere  etc.  Ann.  IV.  57.  19: 
Idque  Augusta  exprobrabat,  reposcebat.  Ann.  VI.  24.  8:  ut  quis 
egredientem  cubiculo  Drusum  pulsaverat,  exterruerat.  Ann.  VI. 
35.  8:  Et  pulsu  armorum  pellerent  pellerentur.  H.  III.  25.  21:  Nee 
eo  segnius  propinquos  adfinis  fratres  trucidant,  spoliant:  etc. 
H.  IV.  74.  21 :  Proinde  pacem  et  urbem,  quam  victi  victoresque 
eodem  iure  obtinemus,  amate,  colite :  etc.  H.  IV.  81.  10:  Ves- 
pasianus  primo  inridere,  aspemari,  etc. 

One  such  case,  H.  I.  2.  16,  is  the  formula,  agere  verier e: 
Nee  minus  praemia  delatorum  invisa  quam  scelera,  cum  alii 
sacerdotia  et  consulatus  ut  spolia  adepti,  procurationes  alii 
et  interiorem  potentiam,  agerent  verterent  cuncta  odio  et 
terrore.  In  this  case  undoubtedly  the  fact  that  this  old 
formula  was  a  perfectly  familiar  phrase,  renders  a  connec- 
tive unnecessary.  Even  if  this  were  not  true,  the  case 
would  be  rather  different  from  the  others  cited  above.  For 
the  two  verbs  are  in  the  same  subordinate  construction  and 
this  fact  in  itself  serves  to  indicate  their  connection.  This 
occurs  very  frequently,  especially  in  the  case  of  indirect 
discourse  in  which  connectives  are  dispensed  with  more 
freely  than  in  the  direct  discourse.  It  is,  however,  very 
clear  in  many  subjunctive  cases  as  well.     Examples  are: 

Ann.  I.  36.  9:  Igitur  volutatis  inter  se  rationibus  placitum  ut 
epistulae  nomine  principis  scriberentur:  missionem  dari  vicena 
stipendia  meritis,  exauctorari  qui  sena  dena  fecissent  ac  retineri  sub 
vexillo  ceterorum  inmunes  nisi  propulsandi  hostis,  legata  quae 
petiverant  exsolvi  duplicarique.  H.  III.  52.  i :  Antonio  ducibusque 
partium  praemitti  equites  omnemque  Umbriam  explorari  placuit,  si 
qua  Appennini  iuga  clementius  adirentur:  acciri  aquilas  signaque 
et  quidquid  Veronae  militum  foret,  Padumque  et  mare  commeatibus 

compleri.     H.    I.   52.    14:     e   quibus   Valens    infensus    Galbae 

instigare    Vitellium,    ardorem    militum    ostentans :     ipsum    celebri 


No  Expressed  Connection.  7 

ubique  fama,  nullam  in  Flacco  Hordeonio  moram;  adfore  Bri- 
taniani,  secutura  Gennanorum  auxilia :  male  fidas  provincias, 
precarium  seni  imperium  et  brevi  transiturum:  panderet  modo 
sinum  et  venienti  Fortunae  occurreret.  H.  I.  65.  12:  nee  iam 
secreta  exhortatio,  sed  publicae  preces :  irent  ultores,  excinderent 
sedem  Gallicae  belli:  etc.  H.  IV.  9.  8:  Censuerat  Helvidius,  ut 
Capitolium  publica  restitueretur,  adiuvaret  Vespasianus.  Ann.  II. 
17.  6:    Exclamat  irent,  sequerentur  Romanas  aves,  propria  legionum 

numina.     Ann.  II.  40.  8:     Ille  e  cHentibus  duos deligit  atque 

hortatur,  simulata  conscientia  adeant,  offerant  pecuniam,  fidem  atque 
pericula  polliceantur.  Ann.  XL  31.  3 :  Quis  fatentibus  certatim 
ceteri  circumstrepunt,  iret  in  castra,  firmaret  praetorias  cohortes, 
securitati  ante  quam  vindictae  consuleret.  Ann.  XL  36.  2 :  clami- 
tans,  aspiceret  verberum  notas,  reminisceretur  vocis,  qua  se 
obnoxium  iussis  Messalinae  dedisset :  etc.  H.  II.  76.  27 :  cum 
interim  spargit  legiones,  exarmat  cohortes,  nova  cotidie  bello  semina 
ministrat.  H.  IV.  53.  3 :  ut  reliquiae  prioris  delubri  in  paludea 
aveherentur,  templum  isdem  vestigiis  sisteretur:    nolle  deos  mutari 

veterem  formam.     D.  2^.  13:    Quod  adeo  neglegitur ut  ip-nor- 

ent  leges,  non  teneant  senatus  consulta,  ius  civitatis  ultro  derideant, 
sapientiae  vero  studium  et  praecepta  prudentium  penitus  reformi- 
dent. 

B. 

The  second  group  of  consecutive  sentences  without 
expressed  connection  comprises  the  inventories  of  various 
sorts  which  occur  with  considerable  frequency  throughout 
the  work  of  Tacitus.  The  most  frequent  are  the  sum- 
maries which  come  at  the  end  of  the  account  of  each  year, 
stating  briefly  the  events  occurring  in  that  year  and  not 
discussed  in  full.  They  are  usually  marked  by  such  expres- 
sions as  eo  anno,  or  eadem  aestate.  With  these  fall  all 
summaries  of  events  at  a  given  time  or  accomplished  by  a 
given  man.  They  include  collected  decrees  of  the  senate, 
portents  during  a  given  period  and  the  acts  of  a  leader  in  a 
crisis,  A  second  subdivision  is  made  up  of  the  short  sketch 
of  a  man's  life  usually  given  in  connection  with  the  notice 
of  his  death.  The  third  subdivision  is  scarcely  different 
from  this  second  but  is  more  purely  descriptive.  It  con- 
sists of  cases  in  which  the  fact  that  the  same  general  sub- 


8  No  Expressed  Connection. 

ject  is  continuously  under  discussion,  is  the  factor  which 
marks  the  connection  between  the  individual  sentences. 
This  necessarily  occurs  most  frequently  in  the  descriptive 
parts,  especially  in  the  Germania  and  the  fifth  book  of  the 
Histories.  The  subject  is  always  more  or  less  definitely 
stated  and  then  connectives  are  used  or  not,  quite  without 
distinction.  The  cases  in  the  entire  group  differ  from  those 
under  section  A  in  that  they  do  not  describe  events  as  taking 
place  simultaneously  or  in  rapid  succession,  but  are  either 
summary  accounts  of  acts  performed  in  the  past  and  only 
arbitrarily  grouped  together,  or  else  descriptions  without 
action.  That  there  is  not  a  clear  cut  division,  however, 
between  the  two  groups  is  clear  from  such  an  example  as 
Ag.  38.  2:  Britanni  palantes  mixtoque  virorum  mulierum- 
que  ploratu  trahere  vulneratos,  vocare  integros,  deserere 
domos  ac  per  iram  ultro  incendere,  eligere  latebras  et  statim 
relinquere;  etc.  H.  II.  45.  10  illustrates  the  same  thing: 
Tum  victi  victoresque  in  lacrimas  effusi,  sortem  civilium 
armorum  misera  laetitia  detestantes :  isdem  tentoriis  alii 
fratrum,  alii  propinquorum  vulnera  fovebant:  spes  et 
praemia  in  ambiguo,  certa  funera  et  luctus,  nee  quisquam 
adeo  mali  expers,  ut  non  aliquam  mortem  maereret. 
Requisitum  Orfidii  legati  corpus  honore  solito  crematur; 
paucos  necessarii  ipsorum  sepelivere,  ceterum  vulgus  super 
humum  relictum.  In  these  two  examples  it  is  difficult  to 
say  whether  there  is  actual  narrative  or  the  description  of 
a  scene.  The  same  is  true  of  all  the  categories :  they  are 
not  rigid  nor  mutually  exclusive. 

I.  The  first  class  of  summaries  occur  chiefly  in  the 
Annals  and  Histories  because  of  the  annalistic  character  of 
those  two  works.  In  fact,  the  regularity  with  which  such 
a  summary  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  account  of  each  year, 
makes  the  usage  so  familiar  that  the  connection  between 
individual  sentences  is  perfectly  clear.  A  case  in  Ann.  II. 
83.  I,  shows  plainly  how  impossible  it  is  to  draw  hard  and 
fast  lines  between  the  different  categories  because  of  the 
frequency  with  which  they  run  into  each  other  and  overlap. 


No  Expressed  Connection.  9 

It  reads :  Honores,  ut  quis  amore  in  Germanicum  aut 
ingenio  validus,  reperti  decretique :  ut  nomen  eius  Saliari 
carmine  caneretur;  sedes  curules  sacerdotium  Augustalium 
locis  superque  eas  querceae  coronae  statuerentur ;  ludos 
circenses  eburna  effigies  praeiret,  neve  quis  flamen  aut 
augur  in  locum  Germanici  nisi  gentis  luliae  crearetur.  In 
this  case  the  decrees  were  all  voted  at  the  same  time  and 
moreover  the  common  subordinate  construction  running 
through  the  whole  serves  to  connect  the  individual  clauses. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  rather  a  summary  of  decrees,  after 
all,  united  by  their  common  subject  and  not  by  the  rapidity 
of  the  narrative.     Further  examples  of  this  subdivision  are : 

Ann.  XIII.  30.  I :    Damnatus  isdem  consulibus  Vipsanius  Laenas 
ob  Sardinian!  provinciam  avare  habitam.     Absolutus  Cestius  Procu- 

lus  repetundarum,  Cretensibus  accusantibus.    Clodius  Quirinalis 

veneno  damnationem  anteiit.  Ann.  XII.  43.  i :  Multa  eo  anno 
prodigia  evenere.  Insessum  diris  avibus  Capitolium,  crebris  terrae 
motibus  prorutae  domus,  etc.  Ann.  I.  72.  i :  Decreta  eo  anno 
triumphalia  insignia  A.  Caecinae,  L.  Apronio,  C.  Silio  ob  res  cum 
Germanico  gestas.  Nomen  patris  patriae  Tiberius,  a  populo  saepius 
ingestum,  repudiavit;  etc.  At  the  end  of  the  first  book  of  the 
Annals  the  paragraphs  show  the  same  method  of  connection.  §  76 
begins:  Eodem  anno  continuis  imbribus  auctus  Tiberis  plana  urbis 
stagnaverat ;  relabentem  secuta  est  aedificiorum  et  hominum  strages. 
Igitur  censuit  Asinius  Gallus  ut  libri  Sibullini  adirentur.  Subse- 
quent sentences  in  §76  take  up  other  decrees  of  the  year:  Achaiam 
ac  Macedonicum  etc.  Edendis  gladiatoribus,  etc.  §  77  has  a  con- 
nective :  At  theatri  licentia,  etc.  But  §  78  has  none :  Templum  ut 
in  colonia  Tarraconensi  strueretur  Augusto  petentibus  Hispanis 
permissum,  datumque  in  omnes  provincias  exemplum.  Centesimam 
rerum  venalium  post  bella  civilia  institutam  deprecante  populo 
edixit  Tiberius  militare  aerarium  eo  subsidio  niti ;  etc.  §  79  has  a 
connective :  Actum  deinde  in  senatu  etc.,  but  §§  80  and  81  are  again 
without  connectives :    Prorogatur  Poppaeo  Sabino  provincia  Moesia, 

and  De  comitiis  consularibus vix  quicquam  firmare  ausim;  etc. 

Ann.  XIII.  24.   I :    Fine  anni   statio  cohortis  adsidere   ludis   solita 

demovetur Urbem  princeps  lustravit  ex  response  haruspicum, 

quod  lovis  ac  Minervae  aedes  de  caelo  tactae  erant.  Ann.  XV. 
32.  I :  Eodem  anno  Caesar  nationes  Alpium  maritimarum  in  ius 
Latii  transtulit.  Equitum  Romanorum  locos  sedilibus  plebis  ante- 
posuit  apud  circum;  etc.  PI.  IV.  40.  7:  Tum  sorte  ducti,  per  quos 
2 


lo  No  Expressed  Connection. 

redderentur  bello  rapta,  quique  aera  legum  vetustate  delapsa  nos- 
cerent  figerentque  et  fastos  adulatione  temporum  foedatos  exonera- 
rent  modumque  publicis  inpensis  facerent.  Redditur  Tettio  luliano 
praetura,  postquam  cognitus  est  ad  Vespasianum  conf ugisse :  Gripho 
honor  mansit.  H.  II.  62.  9:  Praemisit  in  urbem  edictum,  quo 
vocabulum  August!  differet,  Caesaris  non  reciperet,  cum  de  potestate 
nihil  detraheret.  Pulsi  Italia  mathematici ;  cautum  severe,  ne 
equites  Romani  ludo  et  harena  polluerentur.     Ann.  I.  63.  10:    Mox 

reducto   ad   Amisiam   exercitu    legiones    classe reportat;     pars 

equitum  litore  Oceani  petere  Rhenuni  iussa;    Caecina monitus 

pontes  longos  quam  maturrime  superare. 

2.  The  second  class  of  summaries  is  altogether  simple, 
consisting  of  the  short  summaries  of  a  man's  life  given  in 
connection  with  the  notice  of  his  death.     Examples  are : 

Ann.     II.    88.    8:      Ceterum    Arminius dolo    propinquorum 

cecidit:     liberator    baud    dubie    Germaniae proeliis    ambiguus, 

bello  non  victus.     Septem  et  triginta  annos  vitae,  duodecim  potentiae 

explevit.     H.    I.  49.   7:    Hunc   exitum   habuit   Servius    Galba 

Vetus  in  familia  nobilitas,  magnae  opes:  ipsi  medium  ingenium 
magis  extra  vitia  quam  cum  virtutibus.  Famae  nee  incuriosus  nee 
venditator;  pecuniae  alienae  non  adpetens,  suae  parens,  publicae 
avarus ;  amicorum  libertorumque,  ubi  in  bonos  incidisset,  sine  repre- 
hensione  patiens,  si  mali  forent,  usque  ad  culpam  ignarus.  Sed 
claritas  natalium  et  metus  temporum  obtentui,  ut,  quod  segnitia  erat, 
sapientia  vocaretur.  Dum  vigebat  aetas,  militari  laude  apud  Ger- 
manias  floruit.  Pro  consule  Africam  moderate  iam  senior  citer- 
iorem  Hispaniam  pari  iustitia  continuit,  etc.     H.  III.  62.  6:    Natus 

erat  Valens  Anagniae Ludicro   luvenalium   sub   Nerone  velut 

ex  necessitate,  mox  sponte  mimos  actitavit,  scite  magis  quam  probe. 
Legatus  legionis  et  fovit  Verginium  et  infamavit;  Fonteium 
Capitonem  corruptum,  seu  quia  corrumpere  nequiverat  interfecit : 
Galbae  proditor,  Vitellio  fidus  et  aliorum  perfidia  inlustratus. 
H.  II.  5.  I :  Vespasianus  acer  militiae  anteire  agmen,  locum  castris 
capere,  noctu  diuque  consilio  ac,  si  res  posceret,  manu  hostibus 
obniti,  cibo  f  ortuito,  veste  habituque  vix  a  gregario  milite  discrepans. 

3.  The  third  class  of  summaries  consists  of  actual 
descriptions  in  which  the  general  subject  connects  the  indi- 
vidual sentences  which  are  really  items  in  an  inventory. 
This  is  very  well  illustrated  on  a  large  scale  by  the  first 
half  of  the  Germania,  the  part  dealing  with  Germany  as  a 


No  Expressed  Connection.  u 

whole.  A  glance  at  the  openmg  sentences  of  the  chapters 
shows  that  in  many  cases  the  unity  of  subject  is  relied  on  to 
keep  clear  the  connections  between  the  chapters.  The  sub- 
ject is  laid  down  in  the  first  two  words:  Germania  omnis. 
That  the  subject  runs  through  this  entire  first  part  of  the 
essay  is  made  certain  by  the  closing  words  (27.  9)  :  haec 
in  commune  de  omnium  Germanorum  origine  ac  moribus 
accepimus.  The  individual  chapters  which  fall  between 
these  two  quotations  take  up  various  phases  of  this  general 
subject  and  very  often  have  no  expressed  connection.  For 
example :  §  5 :  Terra  etsi  aliquanto  specie  differt,  in  uni- 
versum  tamen  aut  silvis  horrida  aut  palustribus  foeda. 
§  7 :  Reges  ex  nobilitate,  duces  ex  virtute  sumunt,  etc. 
§  9 :  Deorum  maxime  Mercurium  colunt,  etc.  §11:  De 
minoribus  rebus  principes  consultant,  de  maioribus  omnes, 
etc.  §  20 :  In  omni  domo  nudi  ac  sordidi  in  hos  artus,  in 
haec  corpora  quae  miramur,  excrescunt.  §  21 :  Suscipere 
tam  inimicitias  seu  patris  seu  propinqui  quam  amicitias 
necesse  est ;  etc.  §  22 :  Statim  e  somno,  quem  plerumque 
in  diem  extrahunt,  lavantur,  etc.  §  23 :  Potui  humor  ex 
hordeo  etc.  §  24 :  Genus  spectaculorum  unum  atque  in 
omni  coetu  idem.  §  26 :  Faenus  agitare  et  in  usuras 
extendere  ignotum ;  etc.  §27:  Funerum  nulla  ambitio: 
etc.  This  is  not  true,  however,  of  all  the  chapters.  In  the 
midst  of  these  in  which  the  connection  is  not  explicit  are 
others  with  the  clearest  sort  of  expressed  connection.  For 
example :  §  2 :  Ipsos  Germanos  indiginas  crediderim  etc. 
In  this  case  the  people  are  contrasted  with  the  country  and 
the  very  name  Germanos  is  practically  a  repetition.  A  rela- 
tive refers  back  from  the  opening  of  §  3  to  the  close  of  §  2 ; 
§  6  opens  with  ne  ferrum  quid  em;  in  §  13  aut  em  is  used  and 
a  clause,  cum  ventum  in  aciem,  connects  §§  13  and  14;  in 
§  17  omnibus  is  practically  a  repetition  and,  finally,  §  19 
opens  with  ergo.  It  is  impossible  to  say  that  the  paragraphs 
opening  with  an  explicit  connective  are  more  clearly  con- 
nected with  the  preceding  paragraphs  than  those  without. 
In  both  cases  the  connection  is  perfectly  plain. 


IB  No  Expressed  Connection. 

Passing  from  the  general  structure  of  this  part  of  the 
Germania  to  the  particular  paragraphs,  the  same  use  of  one 
general  subject  to  connect  individual  sentences  is  still  very 
clear.  For  example,  §  i6  describes  the  dwellings  of  the 
Germans :  Nullas  Germanorum  populis  urbes  habitari  satis 
notum  est,  ne  pati  quidem  inter  se  iunctas  sedes.  Colunt 
discreti  ac  diversi,  ut  fons,  ut  campus,  ut  nemus  placuit. 
Vicos  locant  non  in  nostrum  morem  conexis  et  cohaerenti- 
bus  aedificiis :  suam  quisque  domum  spatio  circumdat,  etc. 
Compare  §  23,  on  food  and  drink :  Potui  humor  ex  hordeo 
aut  f  rumento,  in  quandam  similitudinem  vini  corruptus : 
•proximi  ripae  et  vinum  mercantur.  Cibi  simplices,  agrestia 
poma,  recens  fera  aut  lac  concretum:  sine  apparatu,  sine 
blandimentis  expellunt  famen.  Adversus  sitim  non  eadem 
temperantia.  Si  indulseris  ebrietati  suggerendo  quantum 
concupiscunt,  baud  minus  facile  vitiis  quam  armis  vincen- 
tur.  Finally  compare  §  27,  on  funeral  rites :  Funerum 
nulla  ambitio:  id  solum  observatur,  ut  corpora  clarorum 
virorum  certis  lignis  crementur.  Struem  rogi  nee  vestibus 
nee  odoribus  cumulant:  sua  cuique  arma,  quorundam  igni 
et  equus  adicitur.  Sepulcrum  caespes  erigit:  monumen- 
torum  arduum  et  operosum  honorem  ut  gravem  defunctis 
aspernantur.  Lamenta  ac  lacrimas  cito,  dolorem  et  tristi- 
tiam  tarde  ponunt.  Feminis  lugere  honestum  est,  viris 
meninisse. 

In  these  cases  the  general  subject  is  not  always  the  sole 
element  of  connection.      On  the  contrary,  there  are  such 

obvious   connectives    in   the   examples    cited,   as   ne 

quidem,  et — also,  eadem  and  solum,  the  last  two  making 
explicit  reference  to  what  has  immediately  preceded.  Such 
cases  illustrate  what  was  noted  at  the  beginning  of  the 
chapter,  that  from  custom,  various  aids  to  the  expression  of 
connection  are  often  used  unnecessarily.  §  13  may  also  be 
compared  with  the  cases  above :  Nihil  autem  neque  publicae 
neque  privatae  rei  nisi  armati  agunt.  Sed  arma  sumere 
-non  ante  cuiquam  moris,  quam  civitas  suffecturum  pro- 
baverit.      Tum  in  ipso  concilio  vel  principum  aliquis  vel 


No  Expressed  Connection.  13 

pater  vel  propinqui  scuto  frameaque  iuvenem  ornant:  haec 
apud  illos  toga,  hie  primus  iuventae  honos ;  ante  hoc  domus 
pars  videntur,  mox  rei  publicae.  In  this  example,  the  sed, 
the  turn,  the  demonstratives,  the  contrast  between  ante  hoc 
and  mox,  all  are  means  often  used  by  Tacitus  to  express 
connection  between  two  sentences.  But  in  this  as  in  the 
preceding  examples  the  specific  connectives  are  scarcely- 
necessary  nor  do  they  make  the  connections  more  clear. 
There  are,  however,  two  general  elements  in  this  class  of 
cases  which  are  really  parts  of  the  main  element  of  connec- 
tion, the  unity  of  subject  matter.  These  are,  first,  the  use 
of  the  same  grammatical  subject  running  through  the  sen- 
tences of  a  paragraph  without  being  repeated,  and  secondly 
the  use  throughout  each  paragraph  of  many  words  which 
are  naturally  associated  in  the  mind.  Funerum,  corpora, 
rogi,  sepulcrum,  monumentorum,  lamenta — ^these  fall  into  a 
common  category. 

Further  examples  of  this  class  are  the  following: 

In  H.  V.  2.  I :  Tacitus  states :  Sed  quoniam  f  amosae  urbis 
supremum  diem  tradituri  sumus,  congruens  videtur  primordia  eius 
aperire.  This  he  proceeds  to  do,  giving  a  brief  account  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  Jews.  In  §  6  he  continues  :  Terra  finesque  qua  ad  Orien- 
tem  vergunt  Arabia  terminantur,  a  meridie  Aegyptus  obiacet,  ab 
occasu  Phoenices  et  mare,  'septentrionem  e  latere  Suriae  longe  pros- 
pectant. Corpora  hominum  salubria  et  ferentia  laborum.  Rari 
imbres,    uber   solum :     f  rugus    nostrum    ad    morem    praeterque    eas 

balsamum     et     palmae.       Palmetis     proceritas     et     decor, etc. 

Praecipuum  montium  Libanum  erigit,  mirum  dictu,  tantos  inter 
ardores  opacum  fidumque  nivibus ;  idem  amnem  lordanen  alit 
funditque.  In  Ag.  10,  Tacitus  announces  an  account  of  Britain  and 
the  Britons ;  §  12  opens :  In  pedite  robur ;  quaedam  nationes  et 
curru  proeliantur.  Honestior  auriga,  clientes  propugnant.  Olim 
regibus  parebant,  nunc  per  principes  factionibus  et  studiis  distra- 
huntur.  Nee  aliud  adversus  validissimas  gentis  pro  nobis  utilius 
quam  quod  in  commune  non  consulunt.  Rarus  duabus  civitatibus 
ad  propulsandum  commune  periculum  conventus  :  ita  singuli  pug- 
nant,  universi  vincuntur.  Caelum  crebris  imbribis  ac  nebulis 
foedum ;  asperitas  f rigorum  abest.  Dierum  spatia  ultra  nostri  orbis 
mensuram;  nox  clara — etc.  Further  illustrations  are  readily  found 
in  the  last  half  of  the  Germania  among  the  descriptions  of  the 
individual  tribes. 


14  No  Expressed  Connection. 

It  appears  from  these  cases  that  Tacitus,  in  his  descrip- 
tions, follows  a  rather  indefinite  outline  or  scheme :  the  sit- 
uation and  features  of  a  country,  including  its  boundaries, 
configuration,  products;  the  characteristics  of  the  people, 
their  appearance,  dress,  mode  of  life,  of  warfare,  of  build- 
ing and  so  on.  It  is  by  no  means  a  hard  and  fast  scheme 
and  is  of  course  not  peculiar  to  Tacitus.  It  comprises  in  a 
logical  order  the  information  that  we  look  for  and  that 
Tacitus'  immediate  reader  looked  for  when  a  new  country 
was  mentioned.  But  this  underlying  scheme  of  arrange- 
ment, however  indefinite,  makes  clear  connections  not  other- 
wise indicated.  Much  more  definite  as  a  scheme  of 
arrangement  or  skeleton  frame  on  which  to  build  up  a 
description  or  even  a  narrative  is  the  far  less  common  one 
in  which  the  geographical  sequence  serves  to  connect  sen- 
tences or  paragraphs.  In  cases  of  this  type  it  is  on  the 
knowledge  of  the  geography  that  the  writer  relies.  It  is  not 
surprising  therefore  that  in  the  second  half  of  the  Germania 
where  a  clear  geographical  order  is  followed  in  the  discus- 
sion of  tribes,  Tacitus  still  felt  it  necessary,  because  of  the 
general  lack  of  familiarity  with  Germany,  to  introduce 
specific  connectives.  Some  such  phrase  as  ultra  hos, 
proximi  Chattis,  in  latere  Chancorum,  or  trans  Suionas, 
opens  each  paragraph.  Ann.  III.  9.  i  offers  an  example  of 
the  usage :  Piso  Delmatico  mare  tramisso  relictisque  apud 
Ancoram  navibus  per  Picenum  ac  mox  Flaminiam  viam 
adsequitur  legionem,  quae  e  Pannonia  in  urbem,  dein  prae- 
sidio  Africae  ducebatur:  eaque  res  agitata  rumoribus,  ut  in 
agmine  atque  itinere  crebro  se  militibus  ostentavisset.  Ab 
Narnia,  vitandae  suspicionis  an  quia  pavidis  consilia  in 
incerto  sunt,  Nare  ac  mox  Tiberi  devectus  auxit  vulgi  iras, 
etc.  The  situation  of  Narnia  gives  the  clue  to  the  connec- 
tion between  its  sentence  and  the  first.  Similarly  in  Ann. 
III.  2.  10,  in  the  description  of  Agrippina's  trip  from 
Brundisium  to  Rome,  this  sentence  occurs:  Drusus  Tarra- 
cinam  progressus  est  cum  Claudio  fratre  liberisque  Ger- 
manici,  qui  in  urbe  fuerant.      It  is  the  knowledge  of  the 


No  Expressed  Connection.  15 

location  of  Tarracina  which  makes  the  connection  clear. 
Such  cases  are  few  and  unsatisfactory,  but  exactly  the  same 
principle  holds  in  a  rapid  historical  summary  where  the 
names  of  the  emperors  mark  the  progress.  For  example, 
Ag.  13.  7  '•  Mox  bella  civilia  et  in  rem  publicam  versa 
principum  arma,  ac  longa  oblivio  Britanniae  etiam  in  pace: 
consilium  id  divus  Augustus  vocabat,  Tiberius  praeceptum. 
Agitasse  Gaium  Caesarem  de  intranda  Britannia  satis 
constat,  ni  velox  ingenio  mobili  paenitentiae,  et  ingentes 
adversus  Germaniam  conatus  frustra  fuissent.  Divus 
Claudius  auctor  iterati  operis,  etc.  H.  V.  9.  8:  Regnum 
ab  Antonio  Herodi  datum  victor  Augustus  auxit.  Post 
mortem  Herodis,  nihil  exspectato  Caesare,  Simo  quidam 
regium  nomen  invaserat.  Is  a  Quintilio  Varo  optinente 
Suriam  punitus,  et  gentem  coercitam  liberi  Herodis  triper- 
tito  rexere.  Sub  Tiberio  quies.  Dein  iussi  a  Gaio  Caesare 
effigiem  eius  in  templo  locare  arma  potius  sumpsere,  quem 
motum  Caesaris  mors  diremit.  Claudius,  defunctis  regibus 
aut  ad  modicum  redactis,  ludaeam  provinciam  equitibus 
Romanis  aut  libertis  permisit,  etc.  The  dein  introducing 
the  sentence  about  Gaius'  attitude  toward  Judaea  is  appar- 
ently introduced  for  the  sake  of  variety.  The  connections 
are  just  as  clear  in  the  other  sentences  when  no  such  word 
is  used. 

There  will  be  found  in  the  next  chapter  an  extensive 
group  of  cases  in  which  a  concise  word  or  one  of  general 
meaning,  such  as  an  indefinite  neuter,  is  analyzed  or  defined 
in  detail  in  the  clauses  that  follow.  In  such  cases  the 
explanatory  clauses  are  often  connected  merely  by  the 
influence  of  their  common  relation  to  the  first  sentence. 
To  this  extent  they  belong  in  the  present  category.  But 
the  study  of  a  large  number  of  these  cases  makes  it  perfectly 
clear  that  the  indefinite  or  very  concise  word  has  by  custom 
attained  an  anticipatory  force.  There  enters  therefore  a 
new  element  of  connection  in  such  cases,  and  although  the 
explanatory  clauses,  considered  by  themselves,  might  be 
classified    with    other    summary    paragraphs,    it    has    been 


1 6  No  Expressed  Connection. 

simpler  to  reserve  their  study  for  the  chapter  on  anticipa- 
tory connection.  One  example  will  serve  here  to  illustrate 
the  usage:  G.  30.  6:  Multum,  ut  inter  Germanos,  rationis 
ac  sollertiae:  praeponere  electos,  audire  praepositos,  nosse 
ordines,  intellegere  occasiones,  differre  impetus,  disponere 
diem,  vallare  noctem,  fortunam  inter  dubia  virtutem  inter 
certa  numerare,  quodque  rarissimum  nee  nisi  Romanae 
disciplinae  concessum,  plus  reponere  in  duce  quam  in 
exercitu.     The  infinitives  are  historical. 


C. 

In  a  third  group  of  cases  in  which  there  is  no  expressed 
connection  between  consecutive  sentences,  it  is  the  clear 
logical  relation  between  the  two  sentences  themselves  that 
makes  the  explicit  connectives  unnecessary.  These  cases 
correspond  to  the  illustration  used  in  the  introduction :  "It 
is  raining.  I  am  not  going  out."  It  is  not  any  larger 
whole  embracing  the  two  sentences,  nor  yet  the  rapidity  of 
narrative  that  makes  their  relation  to  each  other  plain;  it 
is  merely  their  obvious  logical  connection.  This  is  a  very 
common  usage  in  our  own  spoken  language  and  occurs  in 
Tacitus  more  than  fifty  times.     Examples  are : 

Ag.  8.  I :  Praeerat  tunc  Britanniae  Vettius  Bolanus,  placidius 
quam  feroci  provincia  dignum  est.  Temperavit  Agricola  vim  suam 
ardoremque  compescuit,  ne  incresceret,  peritus  obsequi  eruditusque 
utilia  honestis  miscere.  Ag.  8.  4:  Brevi  deinde  Britannia  consularem 
Petilium  Cerialem  accepit.  Habuerunt  virtutes  spatium  exemplorum. 
H.  II.  76.  18 :  Abiit  iam  et  transvectum  est  tempus,  quo  posses 
videri  concupisse:  confugiendum  est  ad  imperium.  Ann.  II.  25.  i: 
Sed  fama  classis  amissae  ut  Germanos  ad  spem  belli,  ita  Caesarem 
ad  coercendum  erexit.  C.  Silio  cum  triginta  peditum,  tribus  equitum 
milibus  ire  in  Chattos  imperat ;  etc.  H.  I.  40.  5 :  Othoni  tamen 
armari  plebem  nuntiabatur;  ire  praecipites  et  occupare  pericula 
iubet.  H.  III.  26.  id:  Plus  apud  socordem  animum  laetitia  quam 
cura  valuit.  Multa  cum  exsultatione  in  urbem  revectus  frequenti 
contione  pietatem  militum  laudibus  cumulat;  etc.  H.  IV.  35.  i: 
Nihil  acque  exercitus  nostros  quam  egestas  copiarum  fatigabat. 
Impedimenta  legionum  cum  imbelli  turba  Novaesium  missa.  ut  inde 


No  Expressed  Connection.  17 

terrestri  itinere  frumentum  adveherent;  nam  flumine  hostes  potie- 
bantur.  Ann.  XII.  38.  i :  Vocati  posthac  patres  multa  et  magnifica 
super  captivitate  Carataci  disseruere,  neque  minus  id  clarum  quam 
quod  Syphacem  P.  Scipio,  Persen  L.  Paulus,  et  si  qui  alii  vinctos 
reges  populo  Romano  ostendere.  Censentur  Ostorio  triumphi 
insignia  etc.  II.  I.  29.  6:  Igitur  consultantibus  placuit  pertemptari 
animum  cohortis,  quae  in  Palatio  stationem  agebat,  nee  per  ipsum 
Galbam,  cuius  integra  auctoritas  maioribus  remediis  servebatur. 
Piso  pro  gradibus   domus  vocatos  in  hunc  modum   adlocutus  est : 

etc.     H.  II.  64.  I :    Igitur  Vitellius vocatum  per  epistulas  vitata 

Flaminiae  viae  celebritate  devertere  Interamnium  atque  ibi  interfici 
iussit.  Longum  interfectori  visum :  in  itinere  ac  taberna  proiectum 
humi  iugulavit  etc.     H.  IV.  34.  13 :    Unde  maior  indici  fides,  simul 

venire  victorem  exercitum  intellegebatur.     In  conspectu  cas- 

trorum  constitui  signa  fossamque  et  vallum  circumdari  Vocula  iubet 
etc.  H.  V.  13.  17:  Hanc  adversus  urbem  gentemque  Caesar  Titus, 
quando  impetus  et  subita  belli  locus  abnueret,  aggeribus  vineisque 
certare  statuit:  dividuntur  legionibus  munia  et  quies  proeliorum 
fuit,  etc. 

These  examples  are  clear ;  there  are  others  in  which 
there  enter  further  means  of  connection  so  that  the  logical 
relation  of  the  sentences  cannot  be  said  to  be  the  only  one. 
In  the  following  examples  the  use  of  a  word  in  the  second 
sentence  which  practically  repeats  some  word,  or  at  least 
some  idea,  in  the  first,  materially  helps  to  make  clear  the 
connection : 

Ann.  III.  60.  3 :  Crebrescebat  enim  Graecas  per  urbes  licentia 
atque  impunitas  asyla  statuendi ;  conplebantur  templa  pessimis 
servitiorum;  etc.  H.  III.  61.  11:  Nee  ulla  apud  Vitellianos  flagitii 
poena,  et  praemiis  defectorum  versa  fides  ac  reliquum  perfidiae 
certamen.  Crebra  transfugia  tribunorum  centurionumque;  etc. 
H.  V.  23.  I :  Civilem  cupido  incessit  navalem  aciem  ostentandi : 
complet  quod  birennium  quaeque  simplici  ordine  agebantur ;    etc. 

It  is  not  very  often  that  Tacitus  relies  simply  on  the 
logical  relation  of  one  sentence  to  another  for  expressing 
the  connection  between  the  two.  The  other  more  explicit 
methods  for  doing  this  were  so  well  developed  that  he 
almost  always  makes  use  of  some  one  of  them.  But  the 
cases  in  which  he  does  leave  the  connection  unexpressed 


1 8  No  Expressed  Connection. 

and  trusts  to  the  logical  relation  alone  to  make  it  clear,  fur- 
nish one  of  the  few  instances  in  Tacitus  of  the  persistence 
of  a  usage,  common  in  the  spoken  language  and  presumably 
in  the  earliest  written  language.  Many  times  the  use  of  a 
conjunction  like  igitur  adds  very  little,  as  in  Ann.  II.  68.  4: 
specie  venandi  omissis  maritimis  locis  avia  saltuum  petiit, 
mox  pernicitate  equi  ad  amnem  Pyramum  contendit,  cuius 
pontes  accolae  ruperant  audita  regis  fuga;  neque  vado 
penetrari  poterat.  Igitur  in  ripa  fluminis  a  Vibio  Frontone 
praefecto  equitum  vincitur,  etc.  The  connection  is  per- 
fectly evident  from  logic  alone,  but  the  conventional  means 
of  expressing  it  are  also  employed.  The  same  is  true  in 
general  of  Tacitus,  that  he  had  at  his  command  a  wide 
range  of  connectives  and  only  rarely  and  with  deliberate 
purpose  did  he  fail  to  make  use  of  one  or  more. 


II. 


CONNECTION   EXPRESSED    IN    THE 
FIRST  CLAUSE. 

The  second  large  division  of  sentence  connections  com- 
prises those  cases  in  which  the  relation  between  two  con- 
secutive sentences  is  actually  expressed  and  in  which  the 
means  used  to  express  this  relation  lie  largely  or  wholly  in 
the  first  sentence.  The  distinction  between  such  cases  and 
others  in  which  the  expressed  connection  is  to  be  found  in 
the  second  of  the  two  sentences  is  not  altogether  rigid. 
Very  often  two,  and  even  more,  distinct  means  are  employed 
in  the  same  instance,  some  in  the  first  sentence,  some  in  the 
second.  It  may  often  be  doubtful  whether  the  connection 
is  essentially  made  in  the  one  or  in  the  other,  and  the  more 
elaborate  the  attempt  to  make  the  relation  between  the  two 
absolutely  clear,  the  more  numerous  are  the  means  used. 
Paul  (3rd  ed.  p.  no)  says:  Je  nach  der  Menge  und 
Bestimmtheit    der   angewendeten    Mittel    ist    die   Art   und 

Weise genauer    oder     ungenauer    bezeichnet.       But 

Paul  also  notes  a  principle  which  has  important  bearing  on 
the  present  question,  namely,  that  if  several  means  are 
employed,  the  first  which  reaches  the  mind,  provided  it  be 
clear  and  distinct,  is  the  determining  one.  It  is  this  first 
one  which  actually  makes  the  connection ;  the  rest  merely 
reinforce  it.  H.  V.  22  furnishes  two  cases  to  illustrate  this 
point.  In  line  5  it  reads :  Prima  caedes  astu  adiuta :  incisis 
tabernaculorum  funibus  suismet  tentoriis  coopertos  trucida- 
bant.  The  connection  is  apparent,  for  the  very  general 
nature  of  the  first  clause  leads  to  the  expectation  of  a 
detailed  explanation  to  follow.  Nothing  is  added  to  the 
clearness,  in  line  12,  by  the  addition  of  a  conjunction:  Dux 
semisomnus  ac  prope  intectus  errore  hostium  servatur: 
namque  praetoriam  navem  vexillo  insignem,  illic  ducem  rati, 


20  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

abripiunt.  Two  further  examples  are :  Ann.  VI.  32.  1 1 : 
Sed  non  Tiberius  omisit  incepta:  Tiridatem  sanguinis 
eiusdem  aemulum  Artabano,  reciperandaeque  Armeniae 
Hiberum  Mithridaten  deligit  etc.  Ann.  II.  80.  i :  Nee 
Piso,  quamquam  incepta  secus  cadebant,  omisit  tutissima  e 
praesentibus,  sed  castellum  Ciliciae  munitum  admodum,  cui 
nomen  Celenderis,  occupat;  etc.  In  all  of  these  examples 
it  is  the  anticipatory  nature  of  the  first  sentence  or  clause 
which  makes  clear  the  connection.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
use  of  correlatives.  So  familiar  have  the  correlative  pairs 
become  in  the  language  as  we  know  it,  that  the  use  of  the 
first  member  of  such  a  pair  at  once  suggests  the  other  mem- 
ber, making  the  connection  anticipatory.  On  the  other 
hand,  connection  by  means  of  the  repetition  in  the  second 
sentence  of  some  element  in  the  first,  although  it  is  mechani- 
cally divided  between  the  two  sentences,  belongs  essentially 
to  the  second,  for  there  is  nothing  in  the  first  to  lead  to  an 
anticipation  of  the  repetition  in  the  second. 

The  sub-divisions  of  this  general  group  are  arranged  with 
the  purpose  of  presenting  the  more  obvious  first.  The  cases 
are  therefore  treated  in  the  following  order:  First,  a  large 
group  in  which  a  quotation  occurs  in  the  second  sentence 
or  clause  and  is  introduced  or  anticipated  in  the  first  by  an 
expression  of  saying,  writing  or  the  like.  This  expression 
may  consist  of  a  single  word  or  of  a  phrase  and  the  antici- 
patory element  lies  in  the  incompleteness  of  the  meaning 
of  the  particular  word  or  phrase  by  itself.  Second,  there 
are  a  few  cases  of  a  question  directly  put,  implying  the 
answer  to  follow  in  the  next  sentence.  The  third  group 
contains  those  cases  in  which  the  anticipatory  element  lies 
in  some  special  word,  so  regularly  used  in  this  way  as  to 
imply  a  following  clause.  Such  words  are  licet  or  sane, 
and  also  the  first  members  of  the  various  correlative  pairs. 
The  fourth  group  is  less  tangible  including  the  cases  in 
which  some  word  or  phrase  is  used  in  the  first  sentence, 
directly  implying  by  its  very  meaning  an  analysis  to  follow ; 
or  else  so  general  or  so  concise  in  its  meaning  as  to  suggest 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  21 

a  more  particular  explanation  to  come.  Finally,  there  is  a 
group  of  cases  in  which  the  first  sentence  or  clause  is 
expressed  in  the  negative  with  the  evident  purpose  of 
emphasizing  or  leading  up  to  a  positive  statement  in  the 
second.  The  last  two  classes  are  the  least  obvious  and 
require  the  most  complete  illustration.  They  are  very  large 
groups  and  are  to  a  certain  degree  the  result  of  stylistic 
peculiarities  of  Tacitus,  so  that  a  familiarity  with  his  usage 
removes  much  of  the  difficulty  in  understanding  them. 


The  simplest  forms  of  connection  by  anticipation  are  to 
be  found  preceding  a  quotation,  either  direct  or  indirect. 
Owing  to  the  large  amount  of  quotation  in  Tacitus  the 
group  is  a  very  large  one  and  also  a  varied  one,  because  it 
includes  instances  of  such  explicit  anticipation  as  dixit  and 
also  such  comparatively  indefinite  anticipation  as  litteras 
misit.  It  is  only  after  a  study  of  the  more  obvious  cases 
and  a  familiarity  with  the  usage  of  Tacitus  that  litteras 
misit  is  seen  to  have  anticipatory  force. 

I.  There  are  not  many  cases  in  Tacitus  of  direct  quota- 
tion of  the  perfectly  obvious  type,  a  type  in  which  the  quo- 
tation virtually  occupies  the  position  of  object  to  the  verb 
of  saying.  The  following  are  all  that  I  have  found:  Ann. 
I.  65.  14:  Inrumpere  Germanos  iubet,  clamitans  'En  Varus 
eodemque  iterum  fato  vinctae  legiones !'  Ann.  I.  13.  13: 
cum  dixisset  'quo  usque  patieris,  Caesar,  non  adesse  caput 
rei  publicae?'  Ann.  I.  18.  8:  Properantibus  Blaesus 
advenit,  increpebatque  ac  retinebat  singulos,  clamitans 
'mea  potius  caede  imbuite  manus  etc'  Ann.  XL  20.  4: 
Nihil  aliud  prolocutus  quam  'beatos  quondam  duces 
Romanos'  signum  receptui  dedit.  Ann.  XIII.  56.  6:  Quod 
ille  ut  proditionis  pretium  aspernatus  addidit  'deesse  nobis 
terra  in  vitam,  in  qua  moriamur,  non  potest  etc'  Ann.  II. 
40.  13  :  Percontanti  Tiberio,  quo  modo  Agrippa  f  actus  esset, 


2  2  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

respondisse  fertur  'quo  modo  tu  Caesar.'  This  last  case  is 
more  doubtful  than  the  rest,  because  the  fact  that  the  verb 
used  in  the  first  clause  is  assumed  in  the  second,  becomes  a 
very  prominent  factor  in  establishing  the  connection.  The 
respondisse,  however,  at  least  suggests  the  quotation  to 
follow  and  is  to  that  extent  anticipatory.  It  is  perhaps 
doubtful  whether  this  case  belongs  in  the  present  class  or 
under  section  4,  below. 

Tacitus'  regular  method  of  introducing  a  short  direct 
statement  is  to  use  inquit,  and  the  post-positive  nature  of  the 
word  somewhat  obscures  the  anticipatory  effect.  Moreover, 
it  is  often  used  in  a  purely  parenthetical  way.  But  the 
cases  where  the  subject  is  stated  at  first  and  the  inquit 
merely  delayed  because  of  the  fact  that  it  is  post-positive, 
are  as  clearly  anticipatory  as  are  the  previous  cases. 
Examples  are: 

Ann,  I.  12.  4:  Turn  Asinius  Gallus  'Interrogo,'  inquit,  'Caesar, 
quam  partem  rei  publicae  mandari  tibi  velis.'  H.  I.  35.  11 :  et  Galba 
'Commilito,'  inquit,  'quis  iussit?'  H.  IV.  66.  8:  simul  Civilis,  ausus 
an  ex  composito,  intulit  se  agmini  Tungrorum,  et  clara  voce  'non 
ideo'  inquit  'bellum  sumpsimus  etc'  D.  3.  10:  Turn  ille  'leges'  inquit 
'quid  Maternus  sibi  debuerit,  et  agnosces  quae  audisti.'  D.  11.  2: 
Maternus  'parantem  me'  inquit  'non  minus  diu  accusare  oratores 
quam  Aper  laudeverat arte  quodam  mitigavit  etc' 

This  use  of  inquit  is,  of  course,  most  common  in  the 
Dialogus,  where  it  occurs  very  frequently,  so  much  so  that 
the  cases  in  which  the  name  only  is  given  and  the  inquit 
omitted  are  as  readily  recognized  to  be  anticipatory  as  are 
the  others.     For  example: 

D.  4.  I :  Et  Maternus :  'perturbarer  hac  tua  severitate,  nisi  f  re- 
quens  et  assidua  nobis  contentio  iam  prope  in  consuetudinem 
vertisset'  D.  15.  i :  Tum  Aper :  *non  desinis,  Messala,  vetera 
tantum  et  antiqua  mirari  etc'  D.  28.  i :  Cui  Messala  'non  recon- 
ditas,  Materne,  causas  requiris,  etc'  Ann.  XIII.  56.  i :  Et  commotus 
his  Avitus:  patienda  melionim  imperia;  id  dis,  quos  implorarent, 
placitum  etc 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  23 

The  last  case,  although  the  quotation  is  in  indirect  dis- 
course, is  as  truly  an  instance  of  explicit  anticipation  as  the 
rest.  Such  quotations  are  far  more  common  in  Tacitus 
than  the  direct.  It  is  ordinarily  considered  that  in  indirect 
discourse  it  is  the  infinitive  mode  that  expresses  the  relation 
between  the  so-called  "main  clause"  and  "dependent  clause." 
This  is  always  a  prominent  factor ;  in  some  cases,  in  which 
the  verb  of  saying  is  very  vague,  it  becomes  the  chief  factor. 
But  there  are  very  many  cases  which  fall  within  the  present 
group,  for  their  verb  of  saying  is  perfectly  clear  and  there- 
fore anticipatory  and  as  it  affects  the  mind  before  the  infini- 
tive mode  does,  it  is  the  principal  means  of  indicating  the 
sentence  connection.  Compare,  for  instance,  Ann.  I.  18.  8, 
quoted  above,  with  Ann.  III.  46.  3 :  Contra  Silius,  etsi  prae- 
sumpta  spes  hortandi  causas  exemerat,  clamitabat  tamen, 
pudendum  ipsis,  quod  Germaniarum  victores  adversum 
Gallos,  tamquam  in  hostem  ducerentur.  The  verb  (clamito) 
is  the  same  in  each  case  and,  in  spite  of  the  difference  in 
form  of  the  clauses  following  it,  the  connection  is  also 
essentially  the  same.  The  form  of  quotation  is  direct  in 
the  one  case,  indirect  in  the  other,  but  in  both  instances 
there  is  the  underlying,  fundamental  relation  between  first 
clause  and  second,  firmly  established  in  the  mind  by  the 
anticipatory  force  of  the  verb.  A  few  examples  will  illus- 
trate this  very  numerous  class : 

Ann.  I.  12.  2:  Dixit  forte  Tiberius  se  ut  non  toti  rei  publicae 
parem,  ita  quaecumque  pars  sibi  mandaretur,  eius  tutelam  sus- 
cepturuni.  Ann.  III.  36.  5 :  Igitur  C.  Cestius  senator  disseruit 
principes  quidem  instar  deorum  esse  etc.  Ann.  VI.  21.  13 :  postremo 
exclamat  ambiguum  sibi  ac  prope  ultimum  discrimen  instare.  Ann. 
VI.  28.  g :  Sunt  qui  adseverent  mille  quadringentos  sexaginta  unum 
interici,  etc.  H.  II.  54.  2:  Cum  repente  Coenus  libertus  Neronis 
atroci  mendacio  universos  perculit,  adfirmans  superventu  quartae 
decumae  legionis,  iunctis  a  Brixello  viribus,  caesos  victores;  versam 
partium  fortunam.  Ann.  XV.  61.  12:  Tradit  Fabius  Rusticus  non 
eo  quo  venerat  itinere  redisse  tribunum,  sed  flexisse  ad  Faenium 
praefectum,  etc.  D.  18,  19:  Satis  constat  ne  Ciceroni  quidem 
obtrectatores  defuisse  etc. 


24  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

Such  cases  of  simple  indirect  discourse  would  ordinarily 
be  considered  merely  as  subordinate  clauses  and  of  course 
they  are  such  in  the  language  as  we  know  it;  nevertheless 
the  underlying  connection  is  of  interest  as  suggesting  that 
originally  there  was  no  such  hard  and  fast  subordinated 
construction — that  the  ultimate  thought  connection  is  really 
established  as  much  by  the  incomplete  nature  of  the  first 
verb,  leading  to  the  expectation  of  something  more  to  come, 
as  by  the  mode  of  the  second  verb.  This  view  is  largely 
confirmed  by  the  next  group. 

2.  The  quotation  is  sometimes  explicitly  anticipated  by  a 
demonstrative  pronoun,  adverb,  or  phrase.  In  one  case 
only  does  a  pronoun  stand  alone  in  this  use ;  in  that  case  the 
second  clause  is,  in  reality,  in  apposition  with  the  pronoun 
which  is  itself  the  object  of  the  verb  of  saying.  This  case 
is  Ann.  XV,  20.  8 :  haec  addidit :  'Usu  probatum  est,  patres 
conscripti,  leges  egregias,  exempla  honesta  apud  bonos  ex 
delictis  aliorum  gigni.'  In  spite  of  the  variation  in  form  of 
expression  the  underlying  connection  is  still  the  same ;  this 
is  also  true  of  a  case  in  H.  IV.  75.  i,  in  which  the  form  is 
again  varied :  cum  Civilis  et  Classicus  misere  ad  Cerialem 
epistulas,  quarum  haec  sententia  fuit :  Vespasianum,  quam- 
quam  nuntios  occultarent,  excessisse  vita,  etc.  All  the  cases 
in  the  present  group  are  from  the  beginning  of  relatively 
long  quotations ;  they  are  not  very  numerous.  Further 
examples  are: 

Ag.  29.  16:  Calgacus  apud  contractam  multitudinem  proelium 
poscentem  in  hunc  modum  locutus  fertur:  'Quotiens  causas  belli  et 
necessitatem  nostram  intueor,  etc'     Ag.  33.  3 :    simul   instruebatur 

acies,  cum  Agricola ita  disseruit :    'Septimus  annus  est,  com- 

militones,  ex  quo  virtute  vestra,  auspiciis  imperii  Romani,  fide  atque 
opera  nostra  Britanniam  vicistis.'     Ann.  VI.  6.  2:    Nam  his  verbis 

exorsus    est:     'Quid    scribam    vobis,    patres    conscripti di    me 

deaeque  peius  perdant  quam  perire  me  cotidie  sentio,  si  scio.'  Ann. 
XIII.  9.  18:  Nero  quo  componeret  diversos,  sic  evulgari  iussit:  ob 
res  a  Quadrato  et  Corbulone  prospere  gestas  laurum  fascibus 
imperatoriis   addi.     Ann.   XII.    10.   2:     Senatum   ingrediuntur  man- 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  25 

dataque  in  hunc  modum  incipiunt:    non  se  foederis  ignaros  esse  nee 
defectione  a  familia  Arsacidarum  venire,  etc. 

By  far  the  most  frequently  used  of  these  anticipatory 
demonstrative  phrases  in  the  works  of  Tacitus  are  in  hunc 
modum  and  ita.  Besides  these  there  occur:  ad  hunc 
modum  (vid.  Ann.  VI.  8.  3)  hoc  modo  (vid.  H.  IV.  14.  2.) 
in  hanc  sententiam  (vid.  Ann.  VI.  20.  10)  and  hactenus 
(vid.  Ann.  XIV.  51.8). 

3.  In  the  third  place,  there  is  very  often  used  to  antici- 
pate a  quotation,  a  word  or  phrase  which  has  not  necessarily 
the  suggestion  of  incompleteness  which  causes  the  antici- 
pation in  the  cases  cited  above.  Such  words  and  phrases 
do  not,  therefore,  necessarily  imply  a  quotation  to  follow, 
but  their  frequent  use  by  Tacitus  to  actually  introduce  a 
quotation  gives  them  this  anticipatory  force.  This  is 
carried  much  farther  in  indirect  quotation  than  in  the  direct, 
as  will  appear  in  the  examples  cited.  In  such  a  sentence  as 
Ann.  II.  23-  7,  Contra  Callus  Asinius  disseruit :  auctu  imperii 
adolevisse  etiam  privatas  opes,  the  anticipation  in  the  first 
clause  is  apparent.  But  without  some  familiarity  with  the 
usage,  it  would  not  be  at  all  apparent  in  Ag.  15.  i :  Namque 
absentia  legati  remoto  metu  Britanni  agitare  inter  se  mala 
servitutis,  conferre  iniurias  et  interpretando  accendere: 
nihil  profici  patientia  nisi  ut  graviora  tamquam  ex  facili 
tolerantibus  imperentur.  This  sentence  might  end  with 
accendere  and  have  no  appearance  of  incompleteness  except 
for  the  fact  that  others  like  it  are  regularly  used  with  a 
quotation  following.  It  is  true  that  this  is  not  absolutely 
always  the  case.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  certain  words 
may  be  used  absolutely,  or  with  a  direct  object,  or  followed 
by  a  quotation.  We  say  "he  spoke"  or  "he  spoke  these 
words"  or  "he  spoke  as  follows."  So  in  Latin  dico  or 
dissero  may  be  used  in  all  these  ways  and  are  so  used  in 
Tacitus.  Compare,  for  instance,  with  the  quotation  cited 
above  from  Ann.  II.  t^^i-  ?>  "the  following :  Ann.  II.  43.  i : 
Igitur  haec  et  de  Armenia  quae  supra  memoravi  apud  patres 


26  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

disseriiit,  nee  posse  motum  Orientem  nisi  Germanici 
sapientia  conponi:  etc.  H.  I.  90.  6:  adversum  Vitellianas 
partes  modeste  disseruit,  inscitiam  potius  legionum  quam 
atidaciam  increpans,  etc.  But  there  are  very  few  instances 
in  Tacitus  where  these  words  do  not  introduce  a  quotation 
so  that  their  use  becomes  an  easily  recognized  means  for 
connecting  two  sentences  by  an  element  of  anticipation  in 
the  first.     Examples  are : 

Ann.  III.  69.  6:  Adversum  quae  disseruit  Caesar:  non  quidem 
sibi  ignara  quae  de  Silano  vulgabantur,  sed  non  ex  rumore  statuen- 
dum.  Ann.  XIII.  27.  i :  Disserebantur  contra :  paucorum  culpam 
ipsis  exitiosam  esse  debere  etc.  Ann  I.  7.  12 :  Verba  edicti  fuere 
pauca  et  sensu  permodesto :  de  honoribus  parentis  consulturum  etc. 
Ann.  I.  48.  3 :  Praemittit  literas  ad  Caecinam,  venire  se  valida 
manu  etc.  Ann.  II.  82.  3 :  et  erumpebant  questus.  Ideo  nimirum 
in  extremas  terras  relegatum,  ideo  Pisoni  permissam  provinciam. 
Ann.  III.  12.  I :  Die  senatus  Caesar  orationem  habuit  meditate 
temperamento.     Patris  sui   legatum   atque  amicum   Pisonem   fuisse 

etc.     Ann.    III.   56.    11:     Sed    principio    litterarum modica    de 

moribus  adulescentis  neque  in  falsum  aucta  rettulit.  Esse  illi 
coniugem  et  tres  liberos  etc.  Ann.  IV.  14.  10:  postremo  Caesar  de 
inmodestia  histrionum  rettulit :  multa  ab  iis  in  publicum  seditiose, 
f  oeda  per  domos  temptari  etc.  Ann.  IV.  53.  3 :  mox  invidiam  et 
preces  orditur :  subveniret  solitudini,  daret  maritum  etc.  Ann.  XI. 
21.  6:  et  audita  est  vox  'tu  es,  Rufe,  qui  in  banc  provinciam  pro 
consule  venis.'  Ann.  XIV.  58.  11:  et  mandata  L.  Antistii  soceri 
attulit :  effugeret  segnem  mortem,  dum  suffugium  esset :  etc.  H.  I. 
21.  4:  fmgebat  et  metum,  quo  magis  concupisceret :  praegravem  se 
Neroni  fuisse,  nee  Lusitaniam  rursus  at  alterius  exilii  honorem 
expectandum.  H.  I.  65.  12 :  Nee  iam  secreta  exhortatio,  sed  publicae 
preces :  irent  ultores,  excinderent  sedem  Gallici  belli :  etc.  H.  II. 
74.  11:  Et  Vespasianus  modo  in  spem  erectus,  aliquando  adversa 
reputabat:  quis  ille  dies  foret,  quo  sexaginta  aetatis  annos  et  duos 
filios  iuvenes  bello  permitteret?  H.  II.  96.  4:  et  amici  adulantes 
mollius  interpretebantur :  unius  legionis  eam  seditionem,  ceteris 
exercitibus  constare  fidem.  H.  III.  13.  4:  Ibi  Vespasiani  virtutem 
viresque  partium  extollit:  transfugisse  classem,  in  arto  commeatum, 
adversas  Gallias  Hispaniasque,  nihil  in  urbe  fidum  atque  omnia  de 
Vitellio  in  deterius.  H.  III.  13.  11:  vastum  primo  silentium,  mox 
cuncta  simul  erumpunt.  Hue  cecedisse  Germanici  exercitus  gloriam, 
ut  sine  proelio.  sine  vulnere,  vinctas  manus  et  capta  traderent  arma? 
H.  IV.  21.  6:   Redditur  responsum :   neque  proditoris  neque  hostium 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  27 

se  consiliis  uti  etc.  H.  V.  25.  i :  et  concussa  Transrhenanorum 
fide  inter  Batavos  quoque  sermones  orti :  non  prorogandam  ultra 
ruinam,  nee  posse  ab  una  natione  totius  orbis  servitium  depelli. 
Ag.  33.  15 :  fortissimi  cuiusque  voces  audiebam :  'quando  dabitur 
hostis,  quando  acies?' 

The  two  following  examples  are  so  doubtful  as  hardly  to 
belong  to  this  class  at  all ;  they  mark  the  border  line 
between  the  present  group  and  one  in  which  the  connection 
lies  in  the  second  clause.  Ann.  II.  13.  11:  Incendit  ea 
contumelia  legionum  iras :  veniret  dies,  daretur  pugna  etc. 
H.  II.  70.  10:  Aderant  Valens  et  Caecina,  monstrabantque 
locos :  hinc  inrupisse  legionum  agmen,  hinc  equites  coortos, 
inde  circumfusas  auxiliorum  manus  etc.  If  the  usage  were 
not  already  familiar,  there  would  be  no  idea  of  anticipation 
whatever  in  the  first  clauses  of  these  two  examples.  As  it 
is,  this  is  very  slight  indeed,  and  it  is  only  when  the  second 
clauses  show  a  subjunctive  and  an  infinitive  with  subject 
accusative,  that  the  connection  between  clauses  becomes 
altogether  clear.  This  indication  of  the  relation  of  the 
clauses  by  means  of  the  mode  of  the  verb  in  the  second 
clause,  is  always  present  in  cases  under  this  group  and  of 
course  always  serves  to  at  least  reinforce  the  principal 
means  of  expressing  the  connection,  namely,  the  element  of 
anticipation  in  the  first  clause.  The  weaker  this  last  ele- 
ment becomes,  the  more  important  is  the  former,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  say  in  each  individual  case  which  is  the  main 
factor  in  determining  the  sentence  connection.  Other 
means  also  are  frequently  used  to  reinforce  the  element  of 
anticipation  but  rarely  do  they  become  the  chief  means  of 
expressing  this  connection.  For  example,  Ann.  III.  64.  11 : 
Contra  dixit  Caesar,  distincto  sacerdotiorum  iure  et  repetitis 
exemplis :  neque  enim  umquam  f etialibus  hoc  maiestatis 
fuisse.  The  connection  is  made  perfectly  clear  by  the  first 
clause  which,  by  its  incompleteness,  leads  to  the  expectation 
of  the  second  to  follow.  The  neque  enim  is  merely  an  addi- 
tional connective  and  not  a  necessary  one.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  following:   Ann.  III.  34.  26:   Addidit  pauca  Drusus 


28  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

de  matrimonio  suo ;  nam  principibus  adeunda  saepius  longin- 
qua  imperii. 

B. 

A  type  of  anticipation  almost  as  obvious  as  is  the  preced- 
ing in  its  simplest  form,  consists  of  the  asking  of  a  question 
in  the  first  sentence.  It  is  only  natural  to  expect  the  answer 
in  the  second  and  this  expectation  is  sufficient  to  make  evi- 
dent the  connection  between  the  two  sentences.  This  group 
is  a  very  small  one;  there  are  but  six  cases  of  direct  ques- 
tion and  answer  and  five  of  these  are  rhetorical  questions, 
put  and  answered  by  the  same  person.  These  six  examples 
are: 

D.  14.  4:  'Num  parum  tempestivus'  inquit  'interveni  secretum 
consilium  aut  causae  alicuius  meditationem  tractantibus  ?'  'Minime, 
minime'  inquit  Secundus.  Ann.  I.  41.  3:  Quis  ille  flebilis  sonus? 
quod  tarn  triste?  Feminas  inhistres,  non  centurionem  ad  tutelam, 
non  militeni,  nihil  imperatoriae  uxoris  aut  comitatus  soliti :  pergere 
ad  Treveros  externae  fidei.  Ann.  III.  54.  13 :  Cur  ergo  dim  parsi- 
monia  pollebat?  Quia  sibi  quisque  moderabatur,  quia  unius  urbis 
cives  eramus,  etc.  H.  III.  13.  14:  Quas  enim  ex  diverse  legiones? 
Nempe  victas;  etc.  Ann.  XIV.  i.  7:  Cur  enim  differri  nuptias  suas? 
Formam  scilicet  displicere  et  triumphales  avos  an  fecunditatem  et 
verum  animum?  Ag.  33.  15:  voces  audiebam  'quando  dabitur  hos- 
tis,  quando  acies?'     Veniunt,  e  latebris  suis  extrusi  etc. 

The  last  case  is  the  most  doubtful.  The  second  sentence 
does  not  directly  answer  the  question  although  it  is  virtually 
equivalent  to  an  answer,  nunc.  Furthermore,  the  fact  that 
the  question  does  not  stand  independently  but  as  the  quota- 
tion of  a  question  which  Agricola  says  that  he  has  heard, 
deprives  it  of  most  of  its  anticipatory  value.  There  are 
other  questions  indirectly  quoted  in  the  same  manner  but 
with  a  different  verb  which  retain  the  anticipatory  force  of 
the  direct  question.  For  example :  Ann.  II.  9.  9 :  Illo  locum 
et  proelium  referente,  quodnam  praemium  recepisset 
exquirit.  Flavus  aucta  stipendia,  torquem  et  coronam 
aliaque  militaria  dona  memorat,  etc.     H.  III.  8.  i :   Quaesi- 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  29 

turn  inde,  quae  sedes  bello  legeretur.  Verona  potior  visa 
patentibus  circum  campis,  ad  pugnam  equestrem  qua 
praevalebant  etc.  H.  IV.  50.  6:  Haud  procul  cubiculo 
obvium  forte  servum,  quisnam  et  ubi  esset  Piso,  inter- 
rogavere.  Servus  egregio  mendacio  se  Pisonem  esse 
respondit  ac  statim  obtruncatur.  In  the  last  case  the  repe- 
tition of  servus  and  Piso  helps  materially  to  connect  the 
sentences,  but  this  is  not  essential ;  the  interrogavere  implies 
an  answer  to  follow. 


A  third  group  of  sentence  connections  in  which  the 
element  of  anticipation  is  present,  is  the  most  interesting 
for  the  present  study.  It  comprises  cases  in  which  the  con- 
nection between  the  two  sentences  or  clauses  is  expressed 
by  the  use  of  some  special  word  in  the  first  clause.  These 
words  are  licet,  sane,  modo,  (ceterus)  and  alius;  instances 
in  which  the  imperative  stands  in  the  first  clause  and  which 
parallel  the  use  with  modo  or  sane  are  included  in  the  group. 
The  interest  in  these  cases  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  express 
exactly  the  same  relation  between  clauses  that  is  expressed 
by  several  of  the  well  recognized  "subordinate"  construc- 
tions. Especially  is  this  true  whenever  there  is  a  contrast 
clearly  expressed  between  the  two  clauses,  for  then  the  rela- 
tion between  the  two  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  between  a 
"concessive"  clause  and  the  main  clause  of  a  sentence.  The 
contrast  is  evidently  the  chief  element  in  expressing  the  con- 
nection for  this  appears  in  all  the  cases  while  the  other 
elements  vary.  The  licet  or  sane  must  therefore  be  looked 
on  rather  as  an  additional  help  to  the  reader  to  warn  him 
of  the  sort  of  clause  to  expect,  and,  as  so  developed  and 
used,  it  becomes  an  anticipatory  means  of  connection. 
This  group  furnishes  one  of  the  few  instances  from  Tacitus 
in  which  there  is  to  be  found  an  indication  of  an  unde- 
veloped construction.  It  is  apparent  that  the  concessive 
idea  never  developed  any  single  form  of  expression,  but  was 


30  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

always  expressed  in  a  great  many  various  ways,  all  depend- 
ing on  the  underlying  contrast  between  clauses  to  make  the 
connection  clear. 

The  use  of  these  special  words  is  not,  however,  confined 
to  the  expression  or  rather  anticipation  of  a  concessive 
connection.  When  there  is  no  element  of  contrast  there  is 
no  trace  of  a  concessive  idea.  Licet  is  always  used  with  an 
accompanying  contrast  and  so  are  sane,  (ceterus)  and  alius 
when  they  have  an  anticipatory  force,  but  modo  is  used  with 
an  imperative,  with  no  accompanying  contrast.  In  such 
instances  the  effect  is  that  of  a  conditional  clause,  as  will 
appear  in  the  discussion  of  these  cases  below. 

Finally  the  use  of  correlatives  is  included  in  the  present 
section  because  the  first  member  of  a  correlative  pair  is  as 
truly  an  anticipatory  word  as  licet  or  sane. 

I.  LICET,  used  as  a  verb  of  simple  narrative  followed 
by  the  infinitive,  does  not  fall  within  the  present  group.  It 
is  only  when  followed  directly  by  the  subjunctive  that  it 
has  anticipatory  and  concessive  force.  There  are  but  four 
instances  of  such  use  in  Tacitus.  D.  13.  3  furnishes  the 
best  example:  Licet  illos  certamina  et  pericula  sua  ad  con- 
sulatus  evexerint,  malo  securum  et  quietum  Virgilii  seces- 
sum  etc.  There  is  elaborate  contrast  throughout,  certamina 
and  pericula  contrasted  in  chiastic  order  with  securum  and 
quietum;  consulatus  contrasted  with  secessum;  and  the  very 
meaning  of  the  verb  malo  implying  a  contrast.  This  in 
itself  suggests  an  adversative  idea  in  the  second  clause  and 
the  use  of  licet  clearly  anticipates  this.  The  other  examples 
are: 

Ag.  32.  5 :  nisi  si  Gallos  et  Germanos  et  (pudet  dictu)  Britannorum 
plerosque,  licet  dominationi  alienae  sanguinem  commodent,  diutius 
tamen  hostes  quam  servos,  fide  et  adfectu  teneri  putatis.  (This  case 
is  complicated  by  the  involved  nature  of  the  sentence,  and  the  conces- 
sive idea  is  substantially  reinforced  by  the  tamen;  but  the  contrast 
is  clear  yi^ithout  the  tamen  and  the  anticipation  evident  in  the  licet.) 
D.  9.  5 :  Licet  haec  ipsa  et  quae  deinceps  dicturus  sum  aures  tuae, 
Materne,  respuant,  cui  bono  est,  si  apud  te  Agamemnon  aut  lason 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  31 

diserte  loquitur?    Ann.  XIV.  55.  13:    Ac  licet  multa  videantur,  pler- 
ique  haudquaquam  artibus  tuis  pares  plura  tenuerunt. 

The  question  of  the  relation  between  licet  and  the  sub- 
junctive following  does  not  belong  in  the  present  discussion 
and  will  be  taken  up  in  the  third  chapter. 

2.  SANE  is  not,  like  licet,  confined  in  Tacitus  to  this  use 
in  the  first  clause,  but  often  occurs  in  the  second ;  that  is, 
sane  often  denotes  a  connection  between  its  own  clause  and 
the  preceding,  rather  than  between  its  own  and  that  which 
follows.  Such  instances,  however,  belong  to  the  next 
chapter.  The  anticipatory  use  of  sane  seems  to  come  from 
its  function  as  an  emphasizing  adverb.  In  English  a  word 
is  often  printed  in  italics  to  give  the  same  emphasis  and 
there  follows  a  clause  beginning  with  "but."  For  instance, 
"He  is  wealthy,  but  he  makes  no  display."  The  emphasis 
expresses  a  concession  which  may  be  further  marked  by 
such  expressions  as  "to  be  sure"  or  "it  is  true."  The  same 
concession  may  be  expressed  in  Latin  by  sane  with  or  with- 
out an  adversative  conjunction  in  the  second  clause.  Con- 
trast always  accompanies  this  use.  H.  IV.  58.  22  furnishes 
a  simple  example :  Sane  ego  displiceam :  sunt  alii  legati, 
tribuni,  centurio  denique  aut  miles,  ne  hoc  prodigium  toto 
terrarum  orbe  vulgetur,  vobis  satellitibus  Civilem  et  Classi- 
cum  Italiam  invasuros.  The  contrast  between  ego  and  alii 
determines  the  connection ;  sane  by  emphasizing  the  ego, 
emphasizes  also  the  contrast.     The  remaining  examples  are : 

Ann.  I.  10.  12:  Sane  Casii  et  Brutorum  exitus  paternis  inimicitiis 
datos,  quamquam  fas  sit  privata  odia  publicis  utilitatibus  remittere : 
sed  Pompeium  imagine  pacis,  sed  Lepidum  specie  amicitiae  deceptos ; 
etc.  Ann.  III.  5.  9 :  Sane  corpus  ob  longinquitatem  itinerum  externis 
terris  quoquo  modo  crematum :  sed  tanto  plura  decora  mox  tribui 
par  fuisse,  quanto  prima  fors  negavisset.  Ann.  III.  59.  13 :  Sane 
gravaretur  aspectum  civium  senex  imperator  fessamque  aetatem  et 
actos  labores  praetenderet :  Druso  quod  nisi  ex  adrogantia  impedi- 
mentum?  Ann.  XII.  27.  15:  Novum  sane  et  moribus  veterum 
insolitum,  f  eminam  signis  Romanis  praesidere :  ipsa  semet  parti 
a  maioribus  suis  imperii  sociam  ferebat.     Ann.  XIV.  44.  5 :     Sane 


32  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

consilium  occultavit,  telum  inter  ignaros  paravit:  num  excubias 
transire,  cubiculo  fores  recludere,  lumen  inferre,  caedem  patrare 
poterat  omnibus  nesciis? 

The  following  show  a  hortatory  or  imperative  expression 
used  with  the  sane  and,  although  the  underlying  connection 
is  still  the  same,  they  form  a  transitional  group  between  the 
other  cases  with  licet  and  sane  and  those  with  modo.  For 
the  imperatives  are  not  actual  commands  but  merely  hypo- 
thetical, and  express  the  same  idea  that  a  conditional  clause 
might  express.  At  the  same  time,  they  do  not  express  a 
pure  condition  like  the  imperatives  with  modo  below,  but 
with  the  element  of  contrast  still  strong,  they  have  still  a 
concessive  tone,  such  as  we  express  in  English  by  "even  if." 
The  examples  are: 

Ann.  III.  70.  7:  Sane  lentus  in  suo  dolore  asset:  rei  publicae 
iniurias  ne  largiretur.  Ann.  XL  23.  18:  Fruerentur  sane  vocabulo 
civitatis  :  insignia  patriun,  decora  magistratuum  ne  vulgarent.  Ann. 
XIII.  55.  10:  Ser\'arent  sane  receptus  gregibus  inter  hominum 
famem,  modo  ne  vastitatem  et  solitudinem  mallent  quam  amicos 
populos.  H.  IV.  42.  14:  Sane  toleremus  istorum  defensiones,  qui 
perdere  alios  quam  periclitari  ipsi  maluerunt :  te  securum  reliquerat 
exul  pater  etc. 

3.  MODO.  There  is  only  one  case  of  anticipation 
marked  by  modo:  Ann.  II.  15.  10:  Meminissent  modo 
avaritiae,  crudelitatis,  superbiae;  aliud  sibi  reliquum  quam 
tenere  libertatem  aut  mori  ante  servitium  ?  In  this  case  the 
clause  with  modo  clearly  expresses  a  supposition.  It  hap- 
pens that  a  rhetorical  question  takes  the  place  of  a  statement 
of  the  result  of  accepting  the  supposition,  but  this  does  not 
change  the  connection.  Two  examples  in  which  the  order 
of  clauses  is  reversed  will  make  this  type  of  connection 
more  familiar:  H.  I.  52.  19:  Male  fidas  provincias,  pre- 
carium  seni  imperium  et  brevi  transiturum :  panderet  modo 
sinum  et  venienti  Fortunae  occurreret.  Ann.  XIV.  61.  14: 
Arma  ilia  adversus  principem  sumpta ;  ducem  tantum 
defuisse,  qui  motis  rebus  facile  reperiretur,  omitteret  modo 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  33 

Campaniam   et   in   urbem   ipsa   pergeret,   ad   cuius   nutum 
absentis  tumultus  cierentur. 

4.  IMPERATIVE  ALONE.  With  the  last  three  exam- 
ples in  mind,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  cases 
in  which  the  imperative  stands  alone  in  the  first  clause  to 
express  a  supposition  or  hypothesis  with  no  special  word  to 
mark  it.  The  element  of  anticipation  in  such  cases  lies  in 
the  hypothetical  nature  of  the  imperative  itself,  which  does 
not  state  a  literal  command  to  do  something  but  merely  a 
premise  to  which  the  second  clause  states  the  conclusion. 
The  future  idea  in  the  second  clause  confirms  the  connec- 
tion between  the  two,  but  the  anticipatory  element  in  the 
first  really  establishes  it.  The  usage  is  easily  paralleled  in 
English.  Kipling's  "Give  me  my  father's  mare  again,  And 
I'll  fight  my  own  way  back"  is  a  good  illustration,  and 
another  is  the  authorized  translation  of  Matthew  7.  7 :  Ask, 
and  it  shall  be  given  you ;  seek,  and  ye  shall  find  ;  knock,  and 
it  shall  be  opened  unto  you.     Examples  from  Tacitus  are : 

Ann.  II.  71.  17:  Ostendite  populo  Romano  divi  Augusti  neptem 
eandemque  coniugem  meam,  numerate  sex  liberos.  Misericordia  cum 
accusantibus  erit,  fugientibusque  scelesta  mandata  aut  non  credent 
homines  aut  non  ignoscent.  Ann.  XI.  2.  5 :  et  'interroga'  inquit, 
'Suilli,  filios  tuos:  virum  esse  me  fatebuntur.'  Ann.  XIV.  43.  13: 
Decernite  hercule  inpunitatem :  at  quem  dignitas  sua  def  endet,  cum 
praefecto  urbis  non  profuerit?  H.  IV.  77.  20:  Ite,  nuntiate 
Vespasiano  vel,  quod  propius  est,  Civili  et  Classico,  relictum  a  vobis 
in  acie  ducem :  venient  legiones,  quae  neque  me  inultum  neque  vos 
impunitos  patiantur.  D.  17.  10:  Statue  sex  et  quinquaginta  annos, 
quibus  mox  divus  Augustus  rem  publicam  rexit ;  adice  Tiberii  tres 
et  viginti  et  prope  quadriennium  Gai,  ac  bis  quaternos  denos  Claudii 
et  Neronis  annos,  atque  ilium  Galbae  et  Othonis  et  Vitelli  longum  et 
unum  annum,  ac  sextam  iam  huius  principatus  stationem,  quo  Ves- 
pasianus  rem  publicam  f ovet :  centum  et  viginti  anni  ab  interitu 
Ciceronis  in  hunc  diem  colliguntur,  unius  hominis  aetas. 

In  the  last  example  the  hypothetical  nature  of  the  impera- 
tives is  clear  and  there  is  no  real  difficulty  with  the  present 
tense  of  colliguntur.     It  is  used  as  though  the  computation 


34  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

were  made  as  the  various  items  are  stated  so  that  it  is  com- 
plete when  they  are  exhausted,  but  it  is  still  future  with 
reference  to  the  imperatives.  There  are,  however,  cases 
which  have  no  such  future  idea  in  the  second  clause,  cases 
like  those  with  licet  in  the  first  clause  and  an  element  of 
contrast  between  the  two  clauses.     These  are : 

Ann.  I.  59.  12:  Coleret  Segestes  victam  ripam,  redderet  filio 
sacerdotium  hominum :  Germanos  numquam  satis  excusaturos, 
quod  inter  Albim  et  Rhenum  virgas  et  secures  et  togam  viderint.  H. 
IV.  8.  15:  Denique  constantia  fortitudine  Catonibus  et  Brutis 
aequaretur  Helvidius :  se  unam  esse  ex  illo  senatu,  qui  simul 
servierit.  H.  IV.  17.  20:  Servirent  Suria  Asiaque  et  suetus  regibus 
Oriens :    multos  adhuc  in  Gallis  vivere  ante  tributa  genitos. 

The  practical  subordination  from  a  logical  point  of  view 
of  the  imperative  clauses,  is  clear  in  all  the  examples.  The 
force  of  the  imperative  is  either  concessive  or  conditional, 
according  as  the  contrast  or  the  future  idea  is  present  in  the 
second  clause,  and  the  connection  between  the  two  clauses 
would  not  be  more  clear  if  a  subordinating  particle  were 
used.  The  only  question  that  arises  is  whether  such  cases 
should  be  classified  as  anticipatory  or  not.  Anticipation  is 
undoubtedly  present.  At  the  same  time,  the  second  clause 
is  required  to  determine  exactly  the  relation  between  the 
clauses.  This  does  not  lessen  the  value  of  the  present  cate- 
gory, which  plainly  represents  one  means  of  sentence  con- 
nection whether  or  not  it  is  the  main  one  used  in  these 
instances. 

5.  (CETERUS)  AND  ALIUS.  Like  the  licet  clauses 
and  the  imperatives  with  a  concessive  idea,  are  the  clauses 
with  (ceterus)  or  alius  in  which  these  words  refer,  not  to 
what  has  preceded  but  to  what  follows.  Such  clauses  make 
a  general  statement  to  which  an  exception  is  given  in  the 
second  clause.  The  connection  seems  to  lie  essentially  in 
the  contrast  idea  which  is  necessarily  present  in  the  words 
(ceterus)  and  alius  themselves.  By  their  very  meaning 
they  are  comparative  or  contrasting  and  so  when  they  do 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  35 

not  refer  to  what  has  preceded  they  at  once  create  the  anti- 
cipation of  a  comparison  by  way  of  contrast  still  to  come. 
The  instances  of  this  usage  are  somewhat  more  numerous 
than  those  of  the  other  types  under  the  present  group ;  about 
half  are  cited  below : 

Ann.  I.  25. 3  :  Ceteri  tribunal  ingenti  agmine  circumveniunt.  Stabat 
Drusus  silentium  manu  poscens.  Ann.  II.  38.  24:  Egere  alii 
grates:  siluit  Hortalus  etc.  Ann.  III.  53.  I:  Ceteris  forsitan  in 
rebus,  patres  conscripti,  magis  expediat  me  coram  interrogari  et 
dicere  quid  e  re  publica  censeam:  in  hac  relatione  subtrahi  oculos 
meos  melius  fuit  etc.     Ann.  XIII.  15.  6:    Igitur  ceteris  diversa  nee 

ruborem  adlatura :     ubi  Britannico  iussit  exsurgeret ille  con- 

stanter  exorsus  est  carmen,  etc.  H.  II.  44.  16:  Ceteris  fractus 
animus :  praetorianus  miles  non  virtute  se,  sed  proditione  victum 
fremebant  etc.  H.  III.  32.  14:  Ceteri  duces  in  obscuro :  Antonium 
f ortuna  f amaque  omnium  oculis  exposuerat.  H.  IV.  62.  7 :  Alii 
nulla  dedecoris  cura  pecuniam  aut  carissima  sibimet  ipsi  circumdare, 
quidam  expedire  arma  telisque  tamquam  in  aciem  accingi.  D.  8.  22 : 
bene  intellegit  ceteros  quidem  amicos  suos  iis  niti,  quae  ab  ipso 
acceperint  quaeque  ipsi  accumulare  et  in  alios  congerere  promptum 
sit,  Marcellum  autem  et  Crispum  attulisse  ad  amicitiam  suam  quod 
non  a  principe  acceperint  nee  accipi  possit.  In  this  last  example  the 
quidem  and  the  autem  serve  to  support  the  other  means  of  connec- 
tion but  do  not  at  all  change  them. 

6.  CORRELATIVES.  The  use  of  correlatives  is  quite 
distinct  from  the  other  usages  grouped  under  the  present 
section.  It  is  included  because,  whenever  it  occurs,  the 
connection  is  established  in  the  first  clause  by  the  anticipa- 
tion expressed  in  a  special  word.  The  usage  is  thoroughly 
familiar  and  has  been  so  extensively  recognized  and  studied 
that  it  does  not  need  to  be  illustrated  here.  Only  one  or 
two  cases  are  of  special  interest  because  they  show  the 
strength  of  the  anticipatory  element  in  the  use  of  correl- 
atives. For  example,  in  D.  39.  6,  there  is  a  case  of  quo 
modo,  sic:  Nam  quo  modo  nobiles  equos  cursus  et  spatia 
probant,  sic  est  aliquis  oratorum  campus,  per  quem  nisi 
liberi  et  soluti  ferantur,  debilitatur  ac  frangitur  eloquentia. 
This  pair  is  so  familiar  that,  in  H.  IV.  42.  27,  the  last  mem- 


36  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

ber  is  omitted  without  making  the  connection  between  the 
clauses  less  clear:  et  quo  modo  senes  nostri  Marcellum, 
Crispum,  iuvenes  Regulum  imitentur.  The  contrast  here 
between  senes  and  iuvenes,  which  is  really  the  underlying 
means  of  connection,  is  quite  sufficient  to  confirm  the  rela- 
tion between  the  clauses  already  established  by  the  quo 
modo.  The  same  is  shown  in  the  following  examples : 
D.  22.  19:  non  ea  solum  instrui  (sc.  volo)  supellectile  quae 
necessariis  usibus  sufficiat,  sed  sit  in  apparatu  eius  aurum 
et  gemmae,  ut  sumere  in  manus  et  aspicere  saepius  libeat. 
H.  II.  2y.  2 :  nee  solum  apud  Caecinam,  qui  culpam  in  mili- 
tem  conferebat,  seditione  magis  quam  proelio  paratum: 
Fabii  quoque  Valentis  copiae  (iam  enim  Ticinum  venerat) 
posito  hostium  contemptu  et  reciperandi  decoris  cupidine 
reverentius  et  aequalius  duci  parebant.  Ann.  XVI.  26.  3: 
Non  solum  Cossutianum  aut  Eprium  ad  scelus  promptos: 
superesse  qui  forsitan  manus  ictusque  per  immanitatem 
ingesturi  sint;  etc. 

D. 

There  are  a  great  many  instances  in  which  Tacitus  uses 
practically  the  same  means  of  connection  that  were  noted 
under  section  (A)  of  the  present  chapter,  but  in  which, 
instead  of  quotation,  either  direct  or  indirect,  it  is  a  piece 
of  direct  narrative  which  is  anticipated  by  the  first  clause 
or  sentence.  The  range  of  expressions  which  can  be  used 
to  excite  anticipation  is  much  wider  in  such  cases  than  in 
the  ones  with  quotations.  This  makes  the  connection  in 
many  instances  much  less  obvious.  But  the  means  used 
are  very  nearly  identical.  They  are,  first,  the  direct 
announcement  of  a  given  piece  of  subject  matter  to  be  dis- 
cussed ;  second,  the  use  of  a  demonstrative  word  or  phrase 
such  as  tali  modo;  finally,  a  wide  range  of  less  precise 
anticipatory  words  or  phrases  which,  from  their  meaning, 
imply  an  explanation  to  follow:  these  may  be  such  words 
as  diversus,  implying  an  analysis  to  follow,  or  words  so  very 
general  in  meaning  as  to  imply  that  a  more  precise  explana- 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  37 

tion  is  coming.  Tiiis  last  usage  is  largely  a  matter  of  style, 
as  was  that  of  the  corresponding  group  under  section  (A), 
and  therefore  requires  more  familiarity  to  make  it  clear, 
and  more  examples  to  make  it  familiar. 

1.  The  direct  announcement  that  a  given  piece  of  subject 
matter  is  to  be  discussed  corresponds  to  the  use  of  exclamo, 
addo  or  the  like,  before  a  quotation.  There  are  few  exam- 
ples of  this  usage  in  Tacitus  but  they  are  simple  and  require 
no  explanation : 

Ann.  III.  24.  3:  Casum  eius  paucis  repetam.  Ut  valida  divo 
Augusto  in  rem  publicam  fortuna,  ita  domi  improspera  fuit  etc. 
H.  I.  51.  i:  Nunc  initia  causasque  motus  Vitelliani  expediam. 
Caeso   cum   omnibus   copiis   lulio   Vindice   ferox   praeda   gloriaque 

exercitus praemia  quam  stipendia  malebat.     H.  II.  27.  7 :  Gravis 

alioquin  seditio  exarserat,  quam  altiore  initio repetam.    Cohortes 

Batavorum superbe  agebant  etc.     H.  V.  2.   i:     Sed  quoniam 

famosae  urbis  supremum  diem  tradituri  sumus,  congruens  videtur 
primordia  eius  aperire.  A  history  of  the  Jews  and  Jerusalem  fol- 
lows. G.  27.  10:  nunc  singularum  gentium  instituta  ritusque, 
quatenus  differant,  quaeque  nationes  e  Germania  in  Gallias  cpm- 
migraverint,  expediam.  D.  6.  i :  Ad  voluptatem  oratoriae  eloquentiae 
transeo  etc.     D.  22.  i :    Ad  Ciceronem  venio  etc. 

2.  Scarcely  different  is  the  group  in  which  a  demonstra- 
tive word  or  phrase  is  similarly  used  to  anticipate  a  state- 
ment. This  includes  indirect  statements  and  questions, 
other  than  quotations,  in  apposition  with  a  demonstrative. 
All  the  examples  are  cited : 

Ann.  VI.  50.  6 :  Illic  eum  adpropinquare  supremis  tali  modo 
compertum.  Erat  medicus  arte  insignis,  nomine  Charicles,  etc. 
Ann.  XIII.  47.  4:  Quem  metum  Graptus  ex  libertis  Caesaris,  usu  et 
senecta  Tiberio  abusque  domum  principum  edoctus,  tali  mendacio 
intendit.  Pons  Mulvius  in  eo  tempore  Celebris  nocturnis  inlecebris 
erat;  etc.  H.  I.  38.  10:  Hoc  solum  erit  certamen,  quis  mihi  pluri- 
mum  inputet.  Cf .  Ann.  IV.  4.  13 :  Quod  mihi  quoque  exsequendum 
reor,  quae  tunc  Romana  copia  in  armis,  qui  socii  reges,  quanto  sit 
angustius  imperitatum.  D.  16.  15 :  sed  hoc  primum  interrogabo, 
quos  vocetis  antiquos.  quam  oratorum  aetatem  significatione  ista 
determinetis.     D.  18.  7 :    Agere  enim  fortius  iam  et  audentius  volo. 


38  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

si  illud  ante  praedixero,  mutari  cum  temporibus  formas  quoque  et 
genera  dicendi.  D.  30.  24 :  Ita  est  enim,  optimi  viri,  ita  est :  ex 
multa  eruditione  et  plurimis  artibus  et  omnium  rerum  scientia 
exundat  et  exuberat  ilia  admirabilis  eloquentia.  Ag.  27.  5 :  Iniquis- 
sima  haec  bellorum  condicio  est :  prospera  omnes  sibi  vindicant, 
adversa  uni  imputantur.  (Note  that  the  demonstrative  looks  both 
ways.) 


3.  The  third  division  of  this  group  is  very  extensive  and 
less  famiHar  than  the  first  two.  Among  the  means  of  anti- 
cipating a  quotation  the  one  most  widely  used  by  Tacitus 
was  the  least  tangible,  namely,  the  employment  of  a  word 
or  phrase  of  speaking  which  was  not  necessarily  incomplete 
in  meaning  and  therefore  did  not  necessarily  imply  a  quota- 
tion to  follow,  but  which  did,  in  actual  use,  regularly  have 
an  element  of  anticipation  because  it  was  Tacitus'  custom 
so  to  use  it  and  this  custom  soon  became  familiar.  The 
same  usage  is  prominent  also  in  direct  narrative.  It  is  a 
point  of  style  which,  from  the  frequency  of  its  use,  becomes 
a  recognizable  means  of  expressing  connection.  Neces- 
sarily there  are  gradations  in  the  clearness  of  such  connec- 
tions :  that  which  is  most  like  the  type  in  which  a  demon- 
strative word  or  phrase  serves  to  denote  the  relation  of  two 
sentences  to  each  other,  consists  of  the  use,  in  the  first 
clause  or  sentence,  of  some  word  whose  meaning  implies  an 
analysis :  such  words  as  diversus  or  varie.  There  are  some 
thirty  or  forty  such  cases  of  which  the  following  are 
typical  examples : 

Ann.  I.  47.  3 :  Multa  quippe  et  diversa  angebant :  validior  per 
Germaniam  exercitus,  proprior  apud  Pannoniam  etc.  Ann.  I.  80.  4: 
Causae  variae  traduntur:  alii  taedio  novae  curae  semel  placita  pro 
aeternis  servavisse,  quidam  invidia,  ne  plures  fruerentur;  sunt  qui 
existiment,  ut  callidum  eius  ingenium,  ita  anxium  iudicium  etc. 
Ann.   XVI.  25.  2:     Diversa  consilia  adferebantur.     Quibus  intrari 

curiam   placebat,   secures   esse   de   constantia   eius    disserunt; 

Contra  qui  opperiendum  domui  censebant,  de  ipso  Thrasea  eadem, 
sed  ludibria  et  contumelias  imminere :    etc.    H.  I.  62.  i :     Mira  inter 

exercitum  imperatoremque  diversitas  :     instare  miles Torpebat 

Vitellius   etc.     H.   II.   42.    10:     Et   per   locos   arboribus   ac   vineis 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  39 

inpeditos  non  una  pugnae  f  acies :  comminus  eminus,  catervis  et 
cuneis  concurrebant.  H.  III.  80.  6 :  Varia  legatorum  sors  fuit.  Qui 
Petilio   Ceriali   occurerant  extremum    discrimen   adiere,    aspernante 

milite  condiciones  pacis Aequioribus  animis  accept!  sunt  qui  ad 

Antonium  venerant,  non  quia  modestior  miles,  sed  duci  plus  auctori- 
tatis.  Ag.  9.  8 :  lam  vero  tempora  curarum  remissionumque  divisa : 
ubi  conventus  ac  iudicia  poscerent,  gravis  intentus  severus,  et  saepius 
misericors :  ubi  officio  satis  factum,  nulla  ultra  potestatis  persona; 
tristitiam  et  adrogantiam  et  avaritiam  exuerat.  G.  12.  2 :  Distinctio 
poenarum  ex  delicto.  Proditores  et  transfugas  arboribus  suspen- 
dunt,  ignavos  et  imbelles  et  corpore  infames  caeno  ac  palude, 
iniecta  insuper  crate,  mergunt.  G.  22.  14 :  et  salva  utriusque 
temporis  ratio  est :  deliberant,  dum  fingere  nesciunt,  constituunt 
dum  errare  non  possunt. 

In  all  of  these  cases  there  is,  in  some  word  of  the  first 
clause,  at  least  the  suggestion  that  an  analysis  is  to  follow 
which  will  give  precision  to  the  statement.  There  are  a 
great  many  more  instances  of  a  similar  but  less  obvious 
usage.  This  consists  of  making  first  a  statement  which  is 
so  general  or  vague  as  to  be  in  itself  unsatisfactory,  and 
then  following  it  with  a  second  or  with  several  more  state- 
ments which  are  precise  and  particular  and  therefore 
explain  the  first.  This  is  a  matter  of  style :  by  making  the 
first  general  or  vague  statement,  Tacitus  holds  the  attention 
until  he  has  explained  what  is  obscure,  and  in  this  way 
emphasizes  the  later  clauses.  For  example,  in  Ann.  I.  29. 
12,  the  statement,  Promptum  ad  asperiora  ingenium  Druso 
erat,  coming  as  it  does,  not  in  a  description  of  Drusus,  but 
in  the  course  of  a  narrative,  has  no  meaning,  except  as  it 
anticipates  the  concrete  example  of  this  cruelty  in  the  second 
clause:  vocatos  Vibulenum  et  Percennium  interfici  iubet. 
Ann.  III.  31.  7,  furnishes  a  good  example:  Ac  forte  parva 
res  magnum  ad  certamen  progressa  praebuit  iuveni 
materiam  apiscendi  favoris.  The  parva  res  and  the  mag- 
num certamen,  in  fact  the  whole  sentence,  is  so  vague  as  to 
be  without  meaning  if  it  stood  alone.  But  the  next  sentence 
makes  it  clear:  Domitius  Corbulo  praetura  functus  de  L. 
Sulla  nobili  iuvene  questus  est  apud  senatum.     Such  a  case 


40  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

as  G.  12.  6  is  somewhat  more  doubtful:  Sed  et  levioribus 
delictis  pro  modo  poena :  equorum  pecorumque  numero 
convicti  multantur.  The  first  clause  might  stand  alone  and 
be  satisfactory,  but  when  the  usage  is  familiar,  such  a  phrase 
is  sufficiently  vague  to  suggest  the  detailed  explanation 
which  follows.  It  would  be  impossible  to  say  just  how 
many  times  this  means  of  connection  is  used  by  Tacitus, 
but  the  following  examples  represent  several  hundred  fairly 
clear  instances : 

Ann.  II.  66.  3 :  Rhescuperis  inter  metum  et  iram  cunctatus  maluit 
patrati  quam  incepti  f  acinoris  reus  esse :  occidi  Cotyn  iubet 
mortemque  sponte  sumptam  ementitur.  Ann.  XIII.  45.  i :  Non 
minus  insignis  eo  anno  impudicitia  magnorum  rei  publicae  malorum 
initium  fecit.  Erat  in  civitate  Sabina  Poppaea  etc.  Ann.  XIV.  4. 
14 :  Ibi  blandimentum  sublevavit  metum  :  comiter  excepta  superque 
ipsum  coUocata.  Ann.  XV.  29.  16:  At  nunc  versos  casus:  iturum 
Tiridaten  ostentui  gentibus,  quanto  minus  quam  captivum?  H.  II. 
8.  15:  Inde  late  terror;  multi  ad  celebritatem  nominis  erecti  rerum 
novarum  cupidine  et  odio  praesentium.  H.  II.  56.  i :  Ceterum 
Italia  gravius  atque  atrocius  quam  bello  adflictabatur.  Dispersi  per 
municipia  et  colonias  Vitelliani  spoliare,  rapere,  vi  et  stupris 
polluere  etc.  H.  II.  94.  i  :  Ceterum  non  ita  ducibus  indulsit  Vitel- 
lius,  ut  non  plus  militi  liceret.  Sibi  quisque  militiam  sumpsere : 
quamvis  indignus,  si  ita  maluerat,  urbanae  militiae  adscribebatur  etc. 
H.  III.  45.  9:  Concussa  statim  flagitio  domus :  pro  marito  studia 
civitatis,  pro  adultero  libido  reginae  et  saevitia.  H.  IV.  i.  i  :  Inter- 
fecto  Vitellio  bellum  magis  desierat  quam  pax  coeperat.  Armati  per 
urbem  victores  inplacabili  odio  victos  consectabantur :  etc.  H.  IV. 
67.  5 :  Fortuna  melioribus  adf  uit :  f  usi  Lingones.  H.  V.  22.  5 : 
Prima  caedes  astu  adiuta :  incisis  tabernaculorum  funibus  suismet 
tentoriis    coopertos    trucidabant.     G.    4.    4:     Unde    habitus    quoque 

corporum idem  omnibus :  truces  et  caerulei  oculi,  rutilae  comae 

etc.     G.  39.  2:    fides  antiquitatis  religione  firmatur.     Stato  tempore 

in  silvam sacram  omnes  eiusdem  sanguinis  populi  legationibus 

coeunt  etc.  G.  19.  4 :  quorum  poena  praesens  et  maritis  permissa : 
abscissis  crinibus  nudatam  coram  propinquis  expellit  domo  maritus 
etc.  G.  10.  I :  sortium  consuetudo  simplex.  Virgam  f rugiferae 
arbori  decisam  in  surculos  amputant  etc.  Ag.  13.  14:  quod  initium 
venturae  mox  fortunae  fuit:  domitae  gentes,  capti  reges,  et  mon- 
stratus    f  atis    Vespasianus.      Ag.    28.    2 :      magnum    et    memorabile 

f acinus  ausa  est.     Deciso  centurione tris  liburnicas  adactis  per 

vim    gubernatoribus    ascendere    etc.      Ag.    29.    i :      Initio    aestatis 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  41 

Agricola  domestico  vulnere  ictus,  anno  ante  natum  filium  amisit. 
D.  25.  17:  Nee  refert  quod  inter  se  specie  differunt,  cum  genere 
consentiant.     Adstrictior    Calvus,    numerosior   Asinius,    splendidior 

Caesar :    omnes  tamen  eandem  sanitatem  eloquentiae  prae  se 

ferunt  etc. 


There  are  two  types  of  connection  under  this  division 
which  occur  so  frequently  as  to  form  groups  of  themselves. 
The  first  of  these  consists  of  instances  in  which  some  form 
of  alius  is  used  with  a  noun  in  the  first  clause.  The  alius 
itself  refers  back  to  some  preceding  word  but  the  phrase 
formed  by  the  alius  and  the  noun  together  is  so  indefinite 
as  to  imply  an  explanation  to  come  in  the  second  sentence. 
Examples  are: 

H.  II.  68.  13 :  Remedium  tumultus  f  uit  alius  tumultus.  Pulvis 
procul  et  arma  adspiciebantur :  conclamatum  repente  quartam 
decumam  legionem  verso  itinere  ad  proelium  venire  etc.  H.  II.  99. 
4:  Longe  alia  proficiscentis  ex  urbe  Germanici  exercitus  species: 
non  vigor  corporibus,  non  ardor  animis;  lentum  et  rarum  agmen, 
fluxa  arma,  etc.  H.  IV.  9.  i :  Secutum  aliud  certamen.  Praetores 
aerarii  (nam  tum  a  praetoribus  tractabatur  aerarium)  publicam 
paupertatem  questi  modum  inpensis  postulaverant.  G.  10.  17:  Est 
et  alia  observatio  auspiciorum  qua  gravium  bellorum  eventus 
explorant.  Eius  gentis,  cum  qua  bellum  est,  captivum  quoquo  modo 
interceptum  cum  electo  popularium  suorum,  patriis  quemque  armis, 
committunt:  victoria  huius  vel  illius  pro  praeiudicio  accipitur. 
G.  39.  6:  Est  et  alia  luco  reverentia:  nemo  nisi  vinculo  ligatus 
ingreditur,  ut  minor  et  potestatem  numinis  prae  se  ferens. 

The  second  small  group  under  this  division  consists  of 
eases  in  which  the  vagueness  or  generality  which  furnishes 
the  element  of  anticipation,  lies  in  a  single  plural  noun, 
usually  a  neuter,  of  very  wide  meaning.  This  word  is 
explained  in  the  second  clause  by  a  more  detailed  statement 
of  its  parts.     Examples  are: 

Ann.  II.  82.  5:  Vera  prorsus  de  Druse  seniores  locutos : 
displicere  regnantibus  civilia  filiorum  ingenia,  neque  ob  aliud  inter- 
ceptos  quam  quia  populum  Romanum  aequo  iure  complecti  reddita 
libertate    agitaverint.     Ann.    III.    18.    i :      Malta   ex    ea   sententia 

4 


42  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

mitig-ata  sunt  a  principe :  ne  nomen  Pisonis  fastis  eximeretur  etc. 
Ann.  XIII.  3.  17 :  Nero  puerilibus  statim  annis  vividum  animum 
in  alia  detorsit:  caelare,  pingere,  cantus  aut  regimen  equorum 
exercere  etc.  Ann.  XIV.  12.  8:  Prodigia  quoque  crebra  et  invita 
intercessere.  Anguem  nixa  mulier,  et  alia  in  concubitu  mariti 
f  ulmine  exanimata :  iam  sol  repente  obscuratus  et  tactae  de  caelo 
quattuordecim  urbis  regiones.  Ann.  XV.  69.  10 :  omnia  simul 
properantur:  clauditur  cubiculo,  praesto  est  medicus,  etc.  H.  II. 
78.  5 :  Recursabant  animo  vetera  omina :  cupressus  arbor  in  agris 
eius  conspicua  altitudine  repente  prociderat  ac  postera  die  eodem 
vestigio  resurgens  procera  et  latior  virebat.  D.  22.  22 :  Quaedam 
vero  procul  arceantur  ut  iam  oblitterata  et  olentia :  nullum  sit 
verbum  velut  rubigine  infectum,  nulli  sensus  tarda  et  inerti  structura 
in  morem  animalium  componantur;  etc.  Ag.  s^-  10:  Omnia 
victoriae  incitamenta  pro  nobis  sunt:  nuUae  Romanos  coniuges 
accendunt,  nulli  parentes  fugam  exprobaturi  sunt;  aut  nulla 
plerisque  patria  aut  alia  est. 

A  few  of  the  examples  cited  above  show  the  same  rela- 
tion between  clauses  that  was  illustrated  in  Chapter  I.  Sec- 
tion C.  There  the  connection  was  purely  logical,  the  second 
clause  expressing  the  result  of  some  fact  stated  in  the  first. 
For  example,  Ag.  8.  i  :  Praeerat  tunc  Britanniae  Vettius 
Bolanus,  placidius  quam  feroci  provincia  dignum  est. 
Temperavit  Agricola  vim  suam  ardoremque  compescuit,  ne 
incresceret,  peritus  obsequi  eruditusque  utilia  honestis 
miscere.  The  same  relation  between  the  two  clauses  occurs 
in  Ann.  I.  29.  12 :  Promptum  ad  asperiora  ingenium  Druso 
erat;  vocatos  Vibulenum  et  Percennium  interfici  iubet. 
The  only  difference  between  the  two  is  that,  in  the  former, 
the  first  clause  is  a  natural  part  of  the  narrative  and  requires 
no  explanation  of  its  presence,  while,  in  the  latter,  the  first 
clause  is  out  of  place  except  as  it  leads  up  to  the  second. 
In  other  words,  the  first  statement  is  made  for  the  sake  of 
the  second  and  is  therefore  expressed  in  such  a  way  as  to 
anticipate  the  second.  A  further  example  of  such  cases  is 
Ann.  V.  4.  6:  disserebatque  brevibus  momentis  summa 
verti:  posse  quandoque  domus  Germanici  exitium  pae- 
nitentiae  esse  <seni.> 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  43 


The  distinguishing  mark  of  cases  that  fall  under  the  last 
division  of  the  present  chapter  is  that  in  all  of  them  the 
first  clause  is  negative,  the  second  affirmative.  The  element 
of  anticipation  enters  into  the  connection  because  of  the 
fact  that  the  negative  statement  is  in  itself  inconclusive. 
As  vi^ith  the  cases  in  the  last  paragraph,  so  here,  the  con- 
nection is  largely  the  result  of  a  habit  of  style,  and  is  not 
obvious  without  a  familiarity  with  many  examples.  Usu- 
ally there  are  other  means  of  connection  employed  which 
support  that  established  by  the  anticipation  expressed  in  the 
negative  clause.  For  example,  Ann.  VI.  35.  i :  Enimvero 
apud  Sarmatas  non  una  vox  ducis :  se  quisque  stimulant,  ne 
pugnam  per  sagittas  sinerent:  impetu  et  comminus  prae- 
veniendum.  The  first  clause,  if  it  stood  by  itself,  would  be 
inconclusive :  it  merely  states  what  is  not  so,  and  adds  noth- 
ing definite  to  the  understanding  of  what  is  true.  If  it 
were  contradicting  some  statement  already  made  it  would 
on  that  account  be  conclusive,  but  as  it  is  not,  the  reader  is 
led  to  look  forward  to  find  the  reason  for  this  negative 
statement.  This  reason  is  found  in  the  second  clause  which 
states  positively  what  is  true.  In  view  of  this  second  clause, 
it  becomes  evident  that  the  purpose  of  the  first  was  to  hold 
the  attention  in  suspense  and  so  emphasize  the  second  clause. 
The  contrast  between  una  vox  and  quisque  serves  to  make 
this  still  more  clear.  The  last  part  of  the  second  clause  is 
related  in  the  same  way  to  the  third,  the  per  sagittas  being 
contrasted  with  the  impetu  and  comminus. 

The  ways  in  which  Tacitus  uses  a  negative  clause  to 
anticipate  a  following  positive  clause  correspond  somewhat 
closely  to  the  divisions  under  D.  above.  The  negative 
clause  may  contain  a  word  or  phrase  of  very  general  mean- 
ing, analyzed  in  detail,  in  the  second  clause;  or  it  may,  by 
itself,  be  vague  and  practically  meaningless  until  the  second 
gives  it  point  by  stating  explicitly  a  positive  fact  more  or 
less  in  contrast  with  it ;  or,  finally,  the  negative  clause  may 
state  a  general  principle  which  appears  out  of  place  until  the 


44  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

application  of  it  is  given  in  the  affirmative  in  the  second 
clause.  In  all  there  are  several  hundred  cases  of  this  usage 
in  Tacitus. 

I.  The  type  of  connection  in  which  the  indefinite  mean- 
ing of  a  word  in  the  first  clause  anticipates  an  analysis  in 
the  second  is  illustrated  in  Ann.  I.  lo.  19.  The  negative 
statement,  Nee  domesticis  abstinebatur,  is,  to  be  sure,  in 
contrast  with  what  has  preceded,  namely,  an  account  of 
public  wrongs.  But  the  word  domesticis  is  so  very  general 
as  to  arouse  an  expectation  of  particular  details  to  follow. 
These  come  in  the  rest  of  the  sentence:  abducta  Neroni 
uxor  et  consulti  per  ludibrium  pontifices  an  concepto  nec- 
dum  edito  partu  rite  nuberet  etc.     Further  examples  are: 

Ann.  I.  29.  10 :  nihil  in  vulgo  modicum ;  terrere,  ni  paveant,  ubi 
pertimuerint,  impune  contemni  etc.  Ann.  II.  20.  i :  Nihil  ex  his 
Caesari  incognitum :  consilia  locos,  prompta  occulta  noverat 
astusque  hostium  in  perniciem  ipsis  vertebat.  Ann.  XV.  5.  9: 
nee  praesentia  prospere  fluebant.  Inritum  obsidium,  tutus  manu  et 
copiis  Tigranes,  fugati  qui  expugnationem  sumpserant,  missae  in 
Armeniam  legiones  etc.  H.  I.  85.  4 :  Non  tamen  quies  urbi  redierat : 
strepitus  telorum  et  facies  belli,  militibus  ut  nihil  in  commune 
turbantibus,  ita  sparsis  per  domos  occulto  habitu,  etc.  H.  II.  55.  i : 
At  Romae  nihil  trepidationis :  Ceriales  ludi  ex  more  spectabantur. 
H.  III.  47.  I  :  Nee  ceterae  nationes  silebant.  Subita  per  Pontum 
arma  barbarum  mancipium,  regiae  quondam  classis  praefectus, 
moverat.  Ag.  5.  8:  Non  sane  alias  exercitatior  magisque  in 
ambiguo  Britannia  fuit :  trucidati  veterani,  incensae  coloniae,  inter- 
cepti  exercitus;  turn  de  salute,  mox  de  victoria  certavere.  Ag.  32. 
20 :  Nee  quicquam  ultra  formidinis :  vacua  castella,  senum 
coloniae,  inter  male  parentes  et  iniuste  imperantes  aegra  municipia 
et  diseordantia.  Ann.  VI.  32.  11:  Sed  non  Tiberius  omisit  incepta : 
Tiridatem  sanguinis  eiusdem  aemulum  Artabano,  reciperandaeque 
Armeniae  Hiberum  Mithridaten  deligit  eoneiliatque  fratri  Pharas- 
mani,  qui  gentile  imperium  obtinebat  etc.  H.  I.  3.  i :  Non  tamen 
adeo  virtutum  sterile  saeculum,  ut  non  et  bona  exempla  prodiderit. 
Comitatae  profugos  liberos  matres,  seeutae  maritos  in  exilia  con- 
iuges :  propinqui  audentes,  constantes  generi,  contumax  etiam  adver- 
sus  tormenta  servorum  fides;  etc.  H.  III.  17.  l:  Nullum  in  ilia 
trepidatione  Antonius  constantis  duels  aut  fortis  militis  offieium 
omisit.  Oceursare  paventibus,  retinere  cedentes,  ubi  plurimus  labor, 
unde  aliqua  spes,  consilio  manu  voce  insignis  hosti,  eonspieuus  suis. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  45 

2.  In  a  second  group  of  cases,  there  is  no  analysis  in  the 
positive  clause.  The  element  of  anticipation  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  negative  clause  by  itself  gives  practically  no 
information.  It  is  used  purely  as  a  rhetorical  device  to 
draw  special  attention  to  the  facts  contained  in  the  positive 
clause  which  follows  it.  Almost  always  there  is  an  element 
of  contrast  which  also  acts  as  a  means  of  expressing  the 
relation  between  the  two  clauses.  This  type  of  sentence 
connection  is  especially  prominent  in  the  Germania,  in  which 
it  occurs  constantly  through  all  the  descriptions.  Examples 
are: 

Ann.  I.  65.  25 :  Neque  is  miserarum  finis.  Struendum  vallum, 
petendus  agger,  amissa  magna  ex  parte  per  quae  egeritur  humus  aut 
exciditur  caespes;  etc.  Ann.  IV.  74.  8:  Non  illi  tamen  in  urbem 
aut  propinqua  urbi  degressi  sunt:  satis  visum  omittere  insulam  et 
in  proximo  Campaniae  aspici.  Ann.  XVI.  26.  3 :  Non  solum  Cos- 
sutianum  aut  Eprium  ad  scelus  promptos :  superesse  qui  f orsitan 
manus  ictusque  per  immanitatem  ingesturi  sint  etc.  H.  I.  38.  7 :  Non 
ad  bellum  vos  nee  ad  periculum  voco :  omnium  militum  arma  nobis- 
cum  sunt.  H.  II.  gi.  16:  Nihil  novi  accidisse  respondit  quod  duo 
senatores  in  re  publica  dissentirent ;  solitum  se  etiam  Thraseae 
contra  dicere.  H.  IV.  79.  i :  Nee  in  longum  quies  militi  data.  Orabant 
auxilium  Agrippinenses  offerebantque  uxorem  ac  sororem  Civilis 
et  filiam  Classici,  relicta  sibi  pignora  societatis.  Ag.  15.  17:  Neve 
proelii  unius  aut  alterius  eventu  pavescerent:  plus  impetus  integris, 
maiorem  constantiam  penes  miseros  esse.  Ag.  22.  13 :  Nee  Agricola 
umquam  per  alios  gesta  avidus  accepit:  seu  centurio  seu  praefectus 
incorruptum  facti  testem  habebat.  G.  6.  10:  Sed  nee  variare  gyros 
in  morem  nostrum  docentur :  in  rectum  aut  uno  flexu  dextros  agunt, 
ita  coniuncto  orbe,  ut  nemo  posterior  sit.  G.  24.  3  :  Exercitatio  artem 
paravit,  ars  decorem,  non  in  quaestum  tamen  aut  mercedem :  quam- 
vis  audacis  lasciviae  pretium  est  voluptas  spectantium. 

The  contrast  is  especially  prominent  in  the  following 
examples : 

Ann.  IV.  39.  7 :  Neque  f ulgorem  honorum  umquam  precatum : 
excubias  ac  labores,  ut  unum  e  militibus,  pro  incolumitate  imperatoris 
malle.  H.  II.  88.  9:  Non  tulit  ludibrium  insolens  contumeliarum 
animus:  inermem  populum  gladiis  invasere.  H.  II.  95.  10:  Nemo 
in  ilia  aula  probitate  aut  industria  certavit :   unum  ad  potentiam  iter, 


46  Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause. 

prodigiis  epulis  et  sumptu  ganiaque  satiare  inexplebiles  Vitelii 
libidines.  G.  16.  3 :  Vicos  locant  non  in  nostrum  morem  conexis  et 
cohaerentibus  aeWificiis :  suam  quisque  domum  spatio  circumdat. 
G.  21.  10:  Nee  interest:  pari  humanitate  accipiuntur.  Ann.  XI. 
2.  I :  Neque  data  senatus  copia :  intra  cubiculum  auditur  etc.  H.  I. 
76.  6 :  Nusquam  fides  aut  amor :  metu  ac  necessitate  hue  illuc  muta- 
bantur.  H.  II.  16.  16:  Et  aversi  repente  animi,  nee  tamen  aperta 
vi :  aptum  tempus  insidiis  legere.  H.  II.  46.  3 :  Non  expectavit 
militum  ardor  vocem  imperatoris :  bonum  haberet  animum  iubebant 
etc.  G.  5.  5 :  Ne  armentis  quidem  suus  honor  aut  gloria  f  rontis : 
numero  gaudent  eaeque  solae  et  gratissimae  opes  sunt.  G.  16.  i  : 
Nullas  Germanorum  populis  urbes  habitari  satis  notum  est,  ne  pati 
quidem  inter  se  iunctas  sedes.  Colunt  discreti  ac  diversi  ut  fons, 
ut  campus,  ut  nemus  placuit.  G.  16.  6:  Ne  caementorum  quidem 
apud  illos  aut  tegularum  usus :  materia  ad  omnia  utuntur  informi 
et  citra  speciem  aut  delectationem.  G.  25.  i :  Ceteris  servis  non 
in  nostrum  morem,  discriptis  per  f  amiliam  ministeriis,  utuntur :  suam 
quisque  sedem,  suos  penates  regit.  G.  39.  8:  Si  forte  prolapsus  est, 
attolli  et  insurgere  baud  licitum :    per  humum  evolvuntur. 

3.  Finally,  there  are  the  cases  in  which  the  negative 
clause  states  a  general  fact  which  by  itself  is  almost  irrele- 
vant. Its  bearing  is  seen  only  when  the  following  clause 
cites  an  application  of  the  fact  which  is  relevant.  The  first 
clause  is  then  seen  to  be  an  explanation  of  the  second.  This 
usage  is  like  that  described  at  the  very  close  of  Section  D 
of  the  present  chapter  and  in  Section  C  of  Chapter  I.  In 
all  of  these  cases  the  logical  connection  between  clauses  is 
the  same;  in  the  present  type  the  statement  of  the  first 
clause  in  the  negative  adds  an  element  of  anticipation  when 
the  other  cases  in  the  present  section  are  familiar.  Exam- 
ples are : 

Ann.  I.  41.  12:  Sed  nihil  aeque  flexit  quam  invidia  in  Treveros : 
orant  obsistunt,  rediret  maneret,  pars  Agrippinae  occursantes, 
plurimi  ad  Germanicum  egressi.  Ann.  II.  65.  i :  Nihil  aeque  Tiber- 
ium  anxium  habetat,  quam  ne  composita  turbarentur.  Deligit  cen- 
turionem,  qui  nuntiaret  regibus  ne  armis  disceptarent  statimque  a 
Cotye  dimissa  sunt  quae  paraverat  auxilia.  Ann.  III.  76.  6:  neque 
prohibuit  quo  minus  laudatione  pro  rostris  ceterisque  sollemnibus 
funus  cohonestaretur.  Viginti  clarissimarum  familiarum  imagines 
antelatae  sunt,  Manlii,  Quinctii  aliaque  eiusdem  nobilitatis  nomina. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  First  Clause.  47 

H.  III.  35.  I :  Ceterum  adsidere  sepultae  urbis  minis  noxia  tabo 
humus  haud  diu  permisit.  Ad  tertium  lapidem  progressi  vagos 
paventesque  Vitellianos,  sua  quemque  apud  signa,  componunt;  etc. 
H.  IV.  22.  5 :  Sed  parum  provisum,  ut  copiae  in  castra  conveheren- 
tur;  rapi  permisere :  etc.  H.  IV.  41.  15:  Africanus  neque  fateri 
audebat  neque  abnuere  poterat:  in  Vibium  Crispum,  cuius  inter- 
rogationibus  fatigabatur,  ultro  conversus,  miscendo  quae  defendere 
nequibat,  societate  culpae  invidiam  declinavit. 

Sometimes  a  conjunction  is  used  in  the  second  clause  to 
express  the  connection  more  clearly.  In  such  cases  the 
fundamental  means  of  connection  remains  the  same,  the 
use  of  the  conjunction  merely  adds  precision.    For  example: 

Ann.  XV.  61.  10:  Tum  tribunus  nulla  pavoris  signa,  nihil  triste 
in  verbis  eius  aut  vultu  deprensum  confirmavit.  Ergo  regredi  et 
indicere  mortem  iubetur.  Ann.  XIV.  25.  i  :  At  praesidium  Legerda, 
quod  ferox  iuventus  clauserat,  non  sine  certamine  expugnatum  est: 
nam  et  proelium  pro  muris  ausi  erant  et  puisi  intra  munimenta 
aggeri  demum  et  inrumpentium  armis  cessere.  Ann.  VI.  40.  17: 
post  a  delatoribus  corripitur  ob  servum  adulterum,  nee  dubitabatur 
de  flagitio:    ergo  omissa  defensione  finem  vitae  sibi  posuit. 

In  no  one  of  these  cases  i§  the  conjunction  necessary  to 
express  the  relation  of  the  clauses,  which  is  first  indicated 
by  the  feeling  of  incompleteness  which  the  first  clause  leaves 
in  the  mind  of  the  reader.  This  is  least  evident  in  the  last 
example:  nee  dubitabatur  de  flagitio  does  not  necessarily 
imply  any  statement  to  follow  which  will  give  it  point.  The 
conjunction  is  therefore  more  essential  and  the  example  is 
an  extreme  one,  defining  the  extent  to  which  this  particular 
means  of  sentence  connection  is  available. 


III. 

CONNECTION  EXPRESSED   IN   THE  SECOND 
CLAUSE. 

When  the  connection  between  two  consecutive  sentences 
is  expressed  in  some  word  or  phrase,  as  it  usually  is  in  for- 
mal writings  such  as  those  of  Tacitus,  this  expression  occurs 
more  frequently  in  the  second  of  the  two  sentences.  This 
is  altogether  natural,  for  it  is  simpler  to  connect  a  state- 
ment with  something  already  expressed  than  to  plan  out  the 
connection  beforehand  and  anticipate  the  second  statement 
in  the  first.  This  is  not  so  generally  true  of  the  written 
language  as  of  the  spoken,  for  the  former  is,  as  a  rule,  much 
more  carefully  worked  over  and,  furthermore,  the  reader  is 
not  under  the  necessity  of  grasping  the  connection  so 
quickly  as  the  listener.  The  more  artificial  the  writer  the 
more  frequently  is  he  likely  to  use  the  less  common  method 
of  expressing  his  connections  in  the  first  sentence.  This 
explains  the  large  number  of  such  instances  in  Tacitus. 
But  the  fact  remains,  that  in  the  large  majority  of  consecu- 
tive sentences  or  clauses,  even  in  Tacitus,  the  connection  is 
expressed  in  the  second.  Many  different  means  are  used  to 
accomplish  this :  the  two  most  frequent  in  Tacitus,  aside 
from  the  familiar  use  of  conjunctions,  are  Repetition  and 
Contrast.  Each  of  these  is  in  turn  used  in  a  very  wide 
variety  of  ways  and  often  other  means  are  used  in  conjunc- 
tion with  them,  but  they  occur  constantly,  and  it  is  probably 
a  decided  understatement  of  the  facts  to  say  that  one  sen- 
tence out  of  every  ten  shows  some  form  or  other  of  repe- 
tition of,  or  contrast  with,  some  element  in  the  preceding 
sentence.  Other  means  similarly  used  are  the  mode  or  tense 
of  the  verb,  adverbs  denoting  sequence,  and  verbs,  or  occa- 
sionally other  words,  whose  meaning  is  incomplete  except 
as  they  refer  to  something  in  the  preceding  sentence  or 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         49 

clause.  Parenthetical  sentences  usually  contain  one  or  more 
of  these  means  of  connection  but  it  is  convenient  to  study 
them  as  a  group  by  themselves. 


Under  the  general  head  of  connection  by  means  of  repe- 
tition are  included  not  alone  the  cases  of  two  consecutive 
sentences  of  which  the  second  contains  a  word  or  phrase 
actually  repeated  from  the  first ;  there  are  also  many  cases 
in  which  the  same  effect  is  produced  by  the  use  of  a  syno- 
nym, or  of  one  of  a  man's  names  instead  of  another,  or  of  a 
title  instead  of  a  name  or  z'ice  versa.  Also,  a  word  in  the 
second  sentence  may  repeat  some  part  of  the  meaning  of  a 
word  in  the  first,  instead  of  the  whole,  or  the  repetition  may 
be  only  implied,  as  in  such  phrases  as  causa  fuit.  Finally, 
instead  of  actual  repetition,  there  may  be  used  a  demonstra- 
tive pronoun  or  some  other  demonstrative  word  such  as 
adhuc,  dehinc  or  talis,  or  else  a  relative  clause,  which  will  be 
shown  to  be  only  another  form  of  this  same  means  of  sen- 
tence connection. 

I.  Instances  of  the  actual  repetition  of  a  word  are  legion, 
for  this  is  one  of  the  simplest  methods  of  expressing  the 
connection  between  one  sentence  and  another.  The  large 
number  of  cases  cited  is  due  to  the  necessity  of  familiarity 
with  this  usage  for  an  understanding  of  the  less  generally 
recognized  types  to  follow.  One  distinction  is  drawn  in 
the  examples  given:  the  word  repeated  may  be  a  word  of 
prominence  in  the  first  sentence,  used  again  in  the  second  to 
show  the  relation  of  a  new  item  in  the  narrative  to  what  has 
preceded ;  or  it  may  be  merely  part  of  a  rhetorical  mechan- 
ism to  denote  parallelism  between  the  two  sentences.  For 
example,  in  Ann.  III.  30.  i,  the  repeated  word  is  the  most 
prominent  one  in  the  second  sentence :  Fine  anni  concessere 
vita  insignes  viri  L.  Volusius  et  Sallustius  Crispus.  Volusio 
vetus  familia  neque  tamen  praeturam  egressa :    etc.     The 


50         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

same  is  true  of  Ann.  XV.  37.  5 :  Igitur  in  stagno  Agrippae 
fabricatus  est  ratem,  cui  superpositum  convivium  navium 
aliarum  tractu  moveretur.  Naves  auro  et  ebore  distinctae, 
etc.  In  cases  of  repetition  of  this  type  the  repeated  word 
is  most  frequently  a  noun  and  its  construction  is  usually 
different  in  the  two  sentences.  Quite  distinct  is  a  case  like 
Ag.  9.  9 :  ubi  conventus  ac  iudicia  poscerent,  gravis  intentus 
severus,  et  saepius  misericors :  ubi  officio  satis  factum,  nulla 
ultra  potestatis  persona;  etc.  In  this  case  the  ubi  is  used 
a  second  time  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  construction 
parallel  with  that  of  the  first  clause.  In  cases  of  this  type 
the  word  repeated  is  usually  a  conjunction  or  adverb,  but  it 
will  be  seen  from  the  examples  given  below  that  this  is  not 
essential. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  first  type  of  repetition : 

Ann.  II.  7.  7 :  tumulum  tamen  nuper  Varianis  legionibus  structum 
et  veterem  aram  Druso  sitam  disiecerant.  Restituit  aram  honorique 
patris  princeps  ipse  cum  legionibus  decucurrit;  tumulum  iterate 
haud  visum.  Ann.  VI.  4.  i :  Ut  vero  Latinium  Latiarem  ingressus 
est,  accusator  ac  reus  iuxta  invisi  gratissimum  spectaculum  praebe- 
bant.  Latiaris,  ut  rettuli,  praecipuus  olim  circumveniendi  Titii 
Sabini  et  tunc  luendae  poenae  primus  fuit.  Ann.  XII.  13.  8:  Interea 
Gotarzes  apud  montem,  cui  nomen  Sanbulos,  vota  dis  loci  suscipie- 
bat,  praecipua  religione  Herculis,  qui  tempore  stato  per  quietem 
monet  sacerdotes,  ut  templum  iuxta  equos  venatui  adornatos  sistant. 
Equi  ubi  pharetras  telis  onustas  accepere,  per  saltus  vagi  nocte 
demum  vacuis  pharetris  multo  cum  anhelitu  redeunt.  Ann.  XIV. 
8.  9:  Anicetus  villam  statione  circumdat  refractaque  ianua  obvios 
servorum  abripit,  donee  ad  fores  cubiculi  veniret;  cui  pauci 
adstabant,  ceteris  terrore  inrumpentium  exterritis.  Cubiculo  modi- 
cum lumen  inerat  etc.  Ann.  XV.  67.  6:  "Oderam  te"  inquit,  "nee 
quisquam  tibi  fidelior  militum  fuit,  dum  amari  meruisti.  Odisse 
coepi  postquam  parracida  matris  et  uxoris,  auriga  et  histrio  et 
incendiarius  extitisti."  H.  I.  7.  i :  Forte  congruerat  ut  Clodii 
Macri  et  Fontei  Capitonis  caedes  nuntiarentur.  Macrum  in  Africa 
haud  dubie  turbantem  Trebonius  Garutianus  procurator  iussu 
Galbae,  Capitonem  in  Germania,  cum  similia  coeptaret,  Cornelius 
Aquinus  et  Fabius  Valens  legati  legionum  interfecerant,  antequam 
iuberentur.  H.  II.  65.  9:  Auctoritas  Cluvii  praevaluit,  ut  puniri 
ultro  libertum  suum  Vitellius  iuberet.  Cluvius  comitatui  principis 
adiectus,  non  adempta  Hispania,  quam  rexit  absens  exemplo  L. 
Arrunti.     H.  V.  6.  4 :    Rari  imbres,  uber  solum :    frugus  nostrum  ad 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.  51 

morem  praeterque  eas  balsamum  et  palmae.  Palmetis  proceritas  et 
decor,  balsamum  modica  arbor  etc.  H.  V.  6.  11 :  Nee  lordanes 
pelago  accipitur,  sed  unum  atque  alterum  lacum  integer  perfluit, 
tertio  retinetur.  Lacus  immenso  ambitu,  specie  maris,  sapore 
corruptior,  gravitate  odoris  accolis  pestifer,  neque  vento  impellitur 
neque  pisces  aut  suetas  aquis  volucres  patitur.  Ag.  9.  24:  et  statim 
Britanniae  praepositus  est,  adiecto  pontificatus  sacerdatio.  Bri- 
tanniae  situm  populosque  multis  scriptoribus  memoratos  non  in 
comparationem  curae  inegniive  referam,  sed  quia  turn  primum 
perdomita  est:  etc.  Ag.  16.  14:  compositis  prioribus  nihil  ultra 
ausus  Trebellio  Maximo  provinciam  tradidit.  Trebellius  segnior  et 
nullis  castrorum  experimentis,  comitate  quadam  curandi  provinciam 
tenuit.  G.  10.  i :  Auspicia  sortesque  ut  qui  maxime  observant : 
sortium  consuetudo  simplex.  G.  42.  i  :  luxta  Hermunduros  Naristi 
ac  deinde  Marcomani  et  Quadi  agunt.  Praecipua  Marcomanorum 
gloria  viresque  etc.  G.  43.  3 :  Cotinos  Gallica,  Osos  Pannonica 
lingua  coarguit  non  esse  Germanos,  et  quod  tributa  patiuntur. 
Partem  tributorum  Sarmatae,  partem  Quadi  ut  alienigenis  imponunt : 
etc. 

The  repeated  word  is  very  frequently  taken,  not  from  the 
sentence  or  clause  immediately  preceding  its  own,  but  from 
some  more  remote  sentence.  For  example,  H.  IV.  65,  17: 
Sic  lenitis  Tencteris  legati  ad  Civilem  ac  Velaedam  missi 
cum  donis  cuncta  ex  voluntate  Agrippinensium  perpetra- 
vere;  sed  coram  adire  adloquique  Velaedam  negatum: 
arcebantur  adspectu,  quo  venerationis  plus  inesset.  Ipsa 
edita  in  turre;  delectus  e  propinquis  consulta  responsaque 
ut  internuntius  numinis  portabat.  Civilis  societate  Agrip- 
pinensium auctus  proximas  civitates  adfectare  aut  adver- 
santibus  bellum  inferre  statuit.  In  narrative  this  usage  is 
very  frequent,  especially  following  a  digression :  the  exam- 
ples require  too  much  space  to  quote,  but  they  are  familiar. 
Throughout  the  account  of  Britain  in  the  Agricola  the  name 
Britannia  is  constantly  used  in  this  resumptive  sense  (vid. 
§§  10,  II,  13  et  al.)  and  other  good  cases  are  to  be  found 
throughout  Tacitus. 

The  second  type  of  connection  by  actual  repetition  of  a 
word  is  not  very  different  from  the  type  of  connection  by 
means  of  correlatives,  with  this  exception:  the  correlatives 
had  been  so  much  used  before  the  time  of  Tacitus  that  they 


52         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

were  already  fixed  and  familiar  in  their  correlative  use, 
while  the  words  used  in  the  present  cases  are  not  thus  fixed. 
The  result  is  that  there  is  no  element  of  anticipation  in  the 
connection,  which  is  made  entirely  in  the  second  clause. 
Examples  are: 

Ann.  II.  21.  2 :  cum  ingens  multitudo  artis  locis  praelongas  hastas 
non  protenderet,  non  colligeret  etc.  Ann.  II.  33.  3 :  decretumque 
ne  vasa  auro  solida  ministrandis  cibis  fierent,  ne  vestis  serica  viros 
foedaret.  Ann.  IV.  70.  7:  Quo  intendisset  oculos,  quo  verba 
acciderent,  fuga  vastitas,  deseri  itinera  fora.  Ann.  XIII.  15.  24: 
quod  dum  rumorem  respiciunt,  dum  parant  defensiones,  securitatem 
morarentur.  H.  I.  32.  9:  daret  malorum  paenitentiae,  daret 
bonorum  consensu!  spatium:  etc.  H.  II.  75.  7:  Sic  Scribonianum 
sub  Claudio  interfectum,  sic  percussorem  eius  Volaginium  e 
gregario  ad  summa  militiae  provectum :  etc.  H.  III.  68.  4 :  Nihil 
tale  viderant,  nihil  audierant.  H.  IV.  74.  6:  Ipsi  plerumque 
legionibus  nostris  praesidetis,  ipsi  has  aliasque  provincias  regitis; 
etc.  D.  36.  21 :  Hi  clientelis  etiam  externarum  nationum  redunda- 
bant,  hos  ituri  in  provincias  magistratus  reverebantur,  hos  reversi 
colebant,  hos  et  praeturae  et  consulatus  vocare  ultro  videbantur,  hi 
ne  privati  quidem  sine  potestate  erant,  cum  et  populum  et  senatum 
consilio  et  auctoritate  regerent.  Ag.  41.  i :  Crebro  per  eos  dies 
apud  Domitianum  absens  accusatus  absens  absolutus  est.  G.  14.  i : 
Cum  ventum  in  aciem,  turpe  principi  virtute  vinci,  turpe  comitatui 
virtutem  principis  non  adaequare.  G.  18.  12:  accipere  se  quae 
liberis  inviolata  ac  digna  reddat,  quae  nurus  accipiant  rursusque  ad 
nepotes  referantur. 

Very  similar  to  this  second  type  of  repetition  is  the 
repeated  use  of  a  subjunctive  or  an  infinitive,  that  is,  of  a 
mode  other  than  that  of  ordinary  narrative,  indicating  the 
parallel  construction  of  two  or  more  clauses.  For  example, 
Ann.  II.  40.  9:  hortatur,  simulata  conscientia  adeant, 
offerant  pecuniam,  fidem  atque  pericula  polliceantur.  But 
cases  of  this  sort  are  reserved  for  the  section  dealing  with 
connection  by  means  of  the  mode. 

2.  It  very  often  happens  that  there  is  not,  in  the  second 
clause,  actual  repetition  of  a  word  in  the  first,  but  that 
exactly  the  same  thing  is  accompli.shed  by  a  slightly  dififerent 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         53 

means :  a  synonym  may  virtually  repeat  some  word  from  the 
first  clause  or  one  of  a  man's  names  or  titles  be  used  for 
another  to  avoid  the  monotony  of  actual  repetition;  a  pro- 
noun, personal,  demonstrative  or  even  relative,  often  per- 
forms the  same  function.  In  all  of  these  types  the  second 
word  has  exactly  the  same  content  as  the  first,  so  that, 
except  for  the  fact  that  the  same  identical  word  is  not  used 
twice,  the  repetition  is  of  the  same  sort  as  that  in  the  cases 
under  the  last  section.  It  is  not  always  as  clear:  the  most 
extreme  instances  of  this  use  are  those  in  which  the  repeti- 
tion is  not  expressed,  but  more  or  less  clearly  implied.  All 
of  the  cases  under  the  present  section  are  alike  in  that  the 
whole  of  a  given  word  in  one  clause  is  virtually  repeated  in 
another,  while  in  the  following  section  will  be  found 
instances  in  which  the  repetition  is  rather  of  some  element 
of  meaning  than  of  a  particular  word. 

a.  The  use  of  a  synonym  is  so  simple  and  so  nearly  like 
actual  repetition  as  to  require  little  discussion.  For  exam- 
ple, H.  IV.  62.  11:  Quippe  intra  vallum  def ormitas  haud 
perinde  notabilis :  detexit  ignominiam  campus  et  dies.  To 
have  repeated  def  ormitas  in  the  second  clause  would  have 
been  altogether  foreign  to  Tacitus'  habit  of  varying  his 
expressions  as  much  as  possible.  The  result  is  that 
ignominiam  in  this  instance  is  virtually  a  repetition  of 
def  ormitas  and  means  just  what  deformitatem  would  mean  if 
it  had  been  used.  A  similar  case  in  which  two  words  which 
ordinarily  have  somewhat  different  meanings,  are  used  with 
identically  the  same  meaning  to  avoid  the  monotony  of 
actual  repetition,  is  H.  V.  26.  6:  Cuncta  inter  nos  inimica: 
hostilia  ab  illo  coepta,  a  me  aucta  erant  etc.  Further 
examples  of  the  use  of  synonyms  are : 

Ann.  II.  69.  8:  Turn  Seleuciam  degreditur,  opperiens  aegritudinem, 
quae  rursum  Germanico  acciderat.  Saevam  vim  morbi  augebat 
persuasio  veneni  a  Pisone  accepti.  Ann.  III.  2Z-  6:  Haud  enim 
frustra  placitum  olim,  ne  feminae  in  socios  aut  gentes  externas 
traherentur:  inesse  mulierum  comitatui  quae  pacem  luxu,  bellum 
formidine  morentur  etc.     Ann.  XII.  17.  4:    datumque  militibus,  qui 


54  Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

scalis  evaserant,  signum  caedis.  Excidio  Uspensium  metus  ceteris 
iniectus  etc.  Ann.  XV.  i6.  14:  iMaesti  manipuli  ac  vicem  commili- 
tonum  miserantes  ne  lacrimis  quidem  temperare ;  vix  prae  fletu 
usurpata  consalutatio.  H.  III.  80.  i :  Eo  successu  studia  populi 
aucta:  vulgus  urbanum  arma  cepit.  G.  i.  9:  donee  in  Ponticum 
mare  sex  meatibus  erumpat :    septimum  os  paludibus  hauritur. 

b.  A  variation  of  the  use  of  a  synonym  is  that  of  one  of 
a  man's  names  for  another  already  used.  Whenever  this 
occurs,  either  the  whole  name  is  familiar  or  else  it  has  been 
recently  stated.  The  most  common  type  of  this  usage  is 
that  in  which  the  semi-title  Caesar  is  employed  for  one  of 
the  names.     Examples  are: 

Ann.  II.  28.  I :  Ut  satis  testium  et  qui  servi  eadem  noscerent 
repperit,  aditum  ad  principem  postulat,  demonstrate  crimine  et  reo 
per  Flaccum  Vescularium  equitem  Romanum,  cui  propior  cum 
Tiberio  usus  erat.  Caesar  indicium  baud  aspernatus  congressus 
abnuit  etc.  Ann.  II.  70.  9:  Nee  Piso  moratus  ultra  navis  solvit, 
moderabaturque  cursui,  quo  propius  regrederetur,  si  mors  Germanici 
Suriam  aperuisset.  Caesar  paulisper  ad  spem  erectus,  dein  fesso 
corpore,  ubi  finis  aderat,  adsistens  amieos  in  hunc  modum  adloquitur 
etc.  H.  IV.  19.  8:  Spreto  Flacco  inferiorem  Germaniam  petivere, 
ut  Civili  iungerentur.  Hordeonius  adhibitis  tribunis  centurionibus- 
que  consultavit  etc.  H.  IV.  6.  12 :  Hinc  inter  Helvidium  et  Eprium 
acre  iurgium :  Priscus  eligi  nominatim  a  magistratibus  iuratis, 
Marcellus  urnam  postulabat,  quae  consulis  designati  sententia  fuerat. 

c.  Instead  of  a  synonym  for  some  word  in  the  first  clause 
or  another  name  for  some  man  mentioned,  a  title  may  be 
used  in  the  second  clause  with  the  effect  of  repeating  a 
name  in  the  first.  This  may  also  be  reversed,  the  title 
standing  in  the  first  clause,  the  name  in  the  second. 
Examples  are: 

Ann.  XIII.  38.  15 :  Dieque  pacto  prior  Corbulo  socias  cohortes  et 
auxilia  regum  pro  cornibus,  medio  sextam  legionem  eonstituit,  cui 
accita  per  noctem  aliis  ex  castris  tria  milia  tertianorum  permis- 
cuerat,  una  cum  aquila,  quasi  eadem  legio  spectaretur.  Tiridates 
vergente  iam  die  procul  adstitit,  unde  videri  magis  quam  audiri 
posset.  Ita  sine  congressu  dux  Romanus  abscedere  militem  sua 
quemque  in  castra  iubet.    Rex  sive  fraudem  suspectans,  quia  plura 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.  55 

simul  in  loca  ibatur,  sive  ut  commeatus  nostros  Pontico  mari  et 
Trapezunte  oppido  adventantes  interciperet,  propere  discedit.  Ann. 
XIV.  18.  9 :  et  senatus  ignota  sibi  esse  mandata  Claudii  et  consulen- 
dum  principem  respondit.  Nero  probata  Strabonis  sententia,  se 
nihilo  minus  subvenire  sociis  et  usurpata  concedere  rescripsit.  H. 
II.  46.  I :  Opperiebatur  Otho  nuntium  pugnae  nequaquam  trepidus 
et  consilii  certus.  Maesta  primum  fama,  dein  profugi  e  proelio 
perditas  res  patefaciunt.  Non  expectavit  militum  ardor  vocem 
imperatoris  etc.  H.  IV.  42.  34 :  Non  timemus  Vespasianum ;  ea 
principis  aetas,  ea  moderatio:  sed  diutius  durant  exempla  quam 
mores.  Elanguimus,  patres  conscripti,  nee  iam  senatus  sumus,  qui 
occiso  Nerone  delatores  et  ministros  more  maiorum  puniendos 
flagitabat.  Optimus  est  post  malum  principem  dies  primus.  Ag. 
14.  11:  Suetonius  hinc  Paulinus  biennio  prosperas  res  habuit, 
subactis  nationibus  firmatisque  praesidiis ;  quorum  fiducia  Monam 
insulam  ut  vires  rebellibus  ministrantem  adgressus  terga  occasion! 
patefecit.  Namque  absentia  legati  remoto  metu  Britanni  agitare 
inter  se  mala  servitutis,  etc. 


As  can  be  seen  from  the  following  cases,  this  usage  is 
not  confined  to  actual  titles  but  occurs  also  with  descriptive 
nouns  of  various  sorts  : 

Ann.  I.  58.  7 :  Ergo  raptorem  filiae  meae,  violatorem  foederis 
vestri,  Arminium  apud  Varum,  qui  tum  exercitui  praesidebat,  reum 
feci.  Dilatus  segnitia  ducis,  quia  parum  praesidii  in  legibus  erat,  ut 
me  et  Arminium  et  conscios  vinciret  flagitavi  etc.  Ann.  III.  43.  i : 
Apud  Aeduos  maior  moles  exorta,  quanto  civitas  opulentior  et 
comprimendi  procul  praesidium.  Augustodunum  caput  gentis 
armatis  cohortibus  Sacrovir  occupaverat  etc.  Ann.  IV.  22.  7 : 
Refert  ad  senatum,  datisque  iudicibus  Urgulania  Silvani  avia 
pugionem  nepoti  misit.  Quod  perinde  creditum,  quasi  principis 
monitu,  ob  amicitiam  Augustae  cum  Urgulania.  Reus  frustra 
temptato  f  erro  venas  praebuit  exsolvendas.  H.  II.  68.  22 :  Nee 
quemquam  saepius  quam  Verginium  omnis  seditio  inf estavit :  mane- 
bat  admiratio  viri  et  fama,  sed  oderant  ut  fastiditi.  H.  IV.  82.  g: 
tunc  divinam  speciem  et  vim  responsi  ex  nomine  Basilidis  interpre- 
tatus  est.  Origo  dei  nondum  nostris  auctoribus  celebrata:  etc. 
H.  IV.  84.  14:  mirum  inde  dictu,  tertio  die  tantum  maris  emensi 
Alexandriam  adpelluntur.  Templum  pro  magnitudine  urbis 
extructum  loco,  cui  nomen  Rhacotis  etc.     G.  38.  i :    Nunc  de  Suebis 

dicendum      est Insigne     gentis     obliquare      crinem      nodoque 

substringere  etc. 


56         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

d.  There  are  two  cases  in  which  a  personal  pronoun  and 
a  noun  stand,  in  consecutive  sentences,  for  the  same  person, 
and  so  estabHsh  the  connection  by  means  of  repetition : 

Ann.  III.  53.  11:  mihi  autem  neque  honestum  silere  neque 
proloqui  expeditum,  quia  non  aedilis  aut  praetoris  aut  consulis 
partis  sustineo.  Maius  aliquid  et  excelsius  a  principe  postulatur. 
H.  II.  yy.  2:  ne  tamen  Mucianum  socium  spreveris,  quia  aemulum 
non  experiris.     Me  Vitellio  antepono,  te  mihi. 


e.  The  two  cases  just  cited,  in  which  a  personal  pronoun 
virtually  repeats  a  noun,  or  vice  versa,  do  not  differ  practi- 
cally from  others  in  which  a  demonstrative  is  used  instead 
of  a  personal  pronoun.  This  use  occurs  very  frequently  in 
Tacitus  and  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  types  of  con- 
nection by  repetition  because  it  leads  to  an  understanding 
of  the  clauses  introduced  by  relatives  and  regularly  classi- 
fied as  "subordinate."  A  comparison  of  clauses  introduced 
by  demonstratives  with  others  introduced  by  relatives  will 
show,  I  think,  that  there  is  no  essential  difference  in  the 
connection  made  in  each  case  with  the  preceding  clause. 
Whether  connection  between  two  clauses  is  expressed  by 
actually  repeating  a  word  or  by  virtually  repeating  a  word 
by  means  of  a  synonym,  of  a  word  of  similar  meaning,  or 
of  a  demonstrative,  or  of  a  relative,  the  essential  connection 
is  the  same.  It  lies  in  the  repetition  of  an  element  of 
meaning.  There  is  not  necessarily  more  subordination 
produced  by  one  of  these  means  than  by  another.  It  is  true 
that  as  the  language  developed  and  became  more  fixed,  the 
expression  of  this  connection  was  left  more  and  more  to  the 
relative,  and  that,  consequently,  the  method  with  the  rela- 
tive was  more  and  more  carefully  worked  out  until  it  came 
to  have  a  more  definite  form  than  did  the  others.  But  the 
presence  to  such  an  extent  of  the  other  means  of  expressing 
the  same  connection,  even  in  so  late  an  author  as  Tacitus, 
shows  that  these  other  means  really  established  the  connec- 
tion just  as  well.  The  question  will  be  taken  up  more  thor- 
oughly at  the  end  of  this  section.     Before  that,  it  is  neces- 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.  57 

sary  to  illustrate  the  use  of  the  demonstrative,  which  is  itself 
somewhat  varied. 

First,  the  demonstrative  in  the  second  clause  may  indicate 
some  person  or  thing  expressly  named  in  the  first  clause  by 
a  noun  or  its  equivalent.  In  other  words,  it  virtually  repeats 
this  noun,  making  the  usage  parallel  to  that  with  actual  repe- 
tition or  with  a  synonym,  title  or  personal  pronoun  in  the 
second  clause.  Ann.  I.  26.  i  illustrates  this:  Responsum 
est  a  contione,  mandata  Clementi  centurioni  quae  perferret. 
Is  orditur  de  missione  a  sedecim  annis,  de  praemiis  finitae 
militiae,  ut  denarius  diurnum  stipendium  foret,  ne  veterani 
sub  vexillo  haberentur.  The  is  of  the  second  clause  has 
exactly  the  same  force  that  the  noun  Clemens  would  have  if 
it  had  been  used  instead.  Of  the  hundreds  of  other  exam- 
ples, a  few  follow : 

Ann.  I.  28.  13 :  accitur  centurio  Clemens  et  si  alii  bonis  artibus 
grati  in  vulgus.  Hi  vigiliis,  stationibus,  custodiis  portarum  se 
inserunt,  spem  offerunt,  metum  intendunt.  Ann.  I.  33.  i :  Interea 
Germanico  per  Gallias,  ut  diximus,  census  accipienti  excessisse 
Augustum  adfertur.  Neptem  eius  Aggripinam  in  matrimonio 
plurisque  ex  ea  liberos  habebat  etc.  H.  III.  30.  9:  Propinqua  muris 
tecta  et  altitudinem  moenium  egressa  fortissimo  quoque  militum 
complet;  illi  trabibus  tegulisque  et  facibus  propugnatores  deturbant. 
H.  V.  6.  17:  Certo  anni  bitumen  egerit,  cuius  legendi  usum,  ut 
ceteras  artes,  experientia  docuit.  Ater  suapte  natura  liquor  et 
sparso  aceto  concretus  innatat;  hunc  manu  captum,  quibus  ea  cura, 
in  summa  navis  trahunt  etc.  Ag.  4.  7 :  Mater  lulia  Procilla  f  uit, 
rarae  castitatis.  In  huius  sinu  indulgentiaque  educatus  per  omnem 
honestarum  artium  cultum  pueritiam  adulescentiamque  transegit. 
Ag.  31.  I. :  liberos  cuique  ac  propinquos  suos  natura  carissimos  esse 
voluit :  hi  per  dilectus  alibi  servituri  auferuntur  etc.  G.  7.  11 :  et 
in  proximo  pignora,  unde  feminarum  ululatus  audiri,  unde  vagitus 
infantium.  Hi  cuique  sanctissimi  testes  etc.  G.  10.  19 :  Eius  gentis 
cum  qua  bellum  est,  captivum  quoquo  modo  interceptum  cum  electo 
popularium  suorum,  patriis  quemque  armis,  committunt :  victoria 
huius  vel  illius  pro  praeiudicio  accipitur. 

The  second  use  of  the  demonstrative  is  parallel  to  a  type 
of  repetition  to  be  taken  up  later  rather  than  to  any  one  of 
those   already   discussed.      Instead   of   virtually    repeating 
5 


58  Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

some  definite  word  in  the  preceding  clause,  the  demon- 
strative stands  either  for  some  idea  expressed  in  that 
clause  or  collectively  for  a  number  of  ideas  or  statements 
made  there.  For  example:  Ann.  I.  34.  15:  Italiae  inde 
consensum,  Galliarum  fidem  extollit ;  nil  umquam  turbidum 
aut  discors.  Silentio  haec  vel  murmure  modico  audita  sunt. 
The  haec  stands  for  the  statements  made  by  Germanicus, 
not  only  in  the  sentence  quoted  but  in  several  that  precede. 
It  is  no  one  word  or  several  words  which  the  haec  virtually 
repeats  but  it  rather  refers  to  what  has  been  said  as  a  whole. 
The  use  is  familiar  and  a  few  illustrations  will  be  sufficient 
to  illustrate  it : 

Ann.  III.  34.  I,  following  the  speech  of  Severus  Caecina  in  the 
thirty-third  chapter:  paucorum  haec  adsensu  audita  etc.  H.  IV. 
56.  I,  after  the  indirect  quotation  of  what  the  Treveri  and  Lingones 
have  said,  continues:  Haec  dicta  pariter  probataque,  de  reliquiis 
Vitelliani  exercitus  dubitavere.  Ann.  I.  28.  i :  Noctem  minacem  et 
in  scelus  erupturam  f  ors  lenivit :  nam  miles  rationis  ignarus  omen 
praesentium  accepit  etc.  Ann.  I.  38.  2:  et  praesenti  duorum  mili- 
tum  supplicio  paulum  repressi  sunt.  lusserat  id  M'.  Ennius  etc. 
Ag.  38.  14 :  praef ecto  classis  circumvehi  Britanniam  praecipit. 
Datae  ad  id  vires,  et  praecesserat  terror.  G.  18.  9:  admonetur 
venire  se  laborum  periculorumque  sociam,  idem  in  pace,  idem  in 
proelio  passuram  ausuramque:  hoc  iuncti  boves,  hoc  paratus  equus, 
hoc  data  arma  denuntiant.  G.  45.  9:  insigne  superstitionis  formas 
aprorum  gestant:  id  pro  armis  omnique  tutela  securum  deae 
cultprem  etiam  inter  hostis  praestat.  D.  18.  i :  Haec  ideo  praedixi, 
ut  si  qua  ex  horum  oratorum  fama  gloriaque  laus  temporibus 
adquiritur,  eam  docerem  in  medio  sitam  etc. 

In  the  third  place,  a  demonstrative  may  stand  with  a  noun 
and  the  combination  may  express  connection  between  the 
clauses  in  either  of  the  two  ways  discussed  in  the  last  two 
paragraphs :  that  is,  it  may  virtually  repeat  some  concrete 
word  in  the  preceding  clause  or  it  may  summarize  an  idea 
expressed  in  that  clause.  When  the  latter  is  the  case,  the 
noun  is  regularly  a  general  abstract  term.  Examples  of 
this  use  are : 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.  59 

Ag.  10.  12:  sed  inmensum  et  enorme  spatium  procurrentium 
extreme  iam  litore  terrarum  velut  in  cuneum  tenuatur.  Hanc 
Oram  novissimi  maris  tunc  primum  Romana  classis  circumvecta 
insulam  esse  Britanniam  adfirmavit,  etc.  G.  18.  2:  Intersunt 
parentes  et  propinqni  ac  munera  probant,  munera  non  ad  delicias 
muliebres  quaesita  nee  quibus  nova  nupta  comatur,  sed  boves  et 
frenatum  equum  et  scutum  cum  framea  gladioque.  In  haec  munera 
uxor  accipitur,  etc.  G.  38.  9:  capillum  retorquent,  ac  saepe  in  ipso 
vertice  religant ;  principes  et  ornatiorem  habent.  Ea  cura  formae, 
sed  innoxia ;  etc.  Ann.  I.  54.  5 :  Ludos  Augustales  tunc  primum 
coeptos  turbavit  discordia  ex  certamine  histrionum.  Indulserat  ei 
ludicro  Augustus  etc.  Ann.  VI.  32.  14:  et  cunctis,  quae  apud 
Orientem  parabantur,  L.  Vitellium  praefecit.  Eo  de  homine  baud 
sum  ignarus  sinistram  in  urbe  famam,  pleraque  foeda  memorari, 
ceterum  in  regendis  provinciis  prisca  virtute  egit.  Ann.  VI.  44.  13: 
Verum  Abdagaeses  regrediendum  in  Mesopotamiam  censebat,  ut 
amne  obiecto,  Armeniis  interim  Elymaeisque  et  ceteris  a  tergo 
excitis,  aucti  copiis  socialibus  et  quas  dux  Romanus  mississet 
fortunam  temptarent.  Ea  sententia  valuit  etc.  Ann.  XL  26.  8: 
Mansuram  eandem  Messalinae  potentiam,  addita  securitate,  si 
praevenirent  Claudium,  ut  insidiis  incautum,  ita  irae  properum. 
Segniter  eae  voces  acceptae  etc.  H.  III.  5.  5 :  Plebem  quoque  et 
vim  equitum,  qua  sola  valent,  offerebant:  remissum  id  munus,  ne 
inter  discordias  externa  molirentur  aut  maiore  ex  diverso  mercede 
ius  fasque  exuerent. 

With  the  demonstrative  pronouns  should  be  inchided  the 
intensive  ipse  and  ide?n;  also  ambo,  uterque  and  neuter: 

H.  III.  I.  6:  Quibus  opperiri  auxilia  et  trahere  bellum  videbatur, 
Germanicarum  legionum  vim  famamque  extollebant,  et  advenisse 
mox  cum  Vitellio  Britannici  exercitus  robora :  ipsis  nee  numerum 
parem  pulsarum  nuper  legionum,  et  quamquam  atrociter  loquerentur, 
minorem  esse  apud  victos  animum.  Ann.  XIV.  22.  3 :  Et  omnium 
ore  Rubellius  Plautus  celebratur,  cui  nobilitas  per  matrem  ex  lulia 
familia.  Ipse  placita  maiorum  colebat  etc.  Ann.  XI.  19.  2:  Et 
natio  Frisiorum,  post  rebellionem  clade  L.  Apronii  coeptam  infensa 
aut  male  fida,  datis  obsidibus  consedit  apud  agros  a  Corbulone 
descriptos :  idem  senatum,  magistratus,  leges  inposuit.  H.  IV.  44.  9 : 
Octavius  Pontiam  Postumiam,  stupro  cognitam  et  nuptias  suas 
abnuentem,  inpotens  amoris  interfecerat,  Sosianus  pravitate  morum 
multis  exitiosus.  Ambo  gravi  senatus  consulto  damnati  pulsique, 
quamvis  concesso  aliis  reditu,  in  eadem  poena  retenti  sunt.  Ann. 
III.  S7.  I :    Et  Considius  Aequus  et  Caelius  Cursor  equites  Romani, 


6o         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

quod  fictis  criminibus  Magium  Caecilianum  praetorem  petivissent, 
auctore  principe  ac  decreto  senatus  puniti.  Utrumque  in  laudem 
Drusi  trahebatur  etc.  H.  IV.  40.  4:  Referente  Caesare  de  resti- 
tuendis  Galbae  honoribus,  censuit  Curtius  Montanus,  ut  Pisonis 
quoque  memoria  celebraretur.  Patres  utrumque  iussere:  de  Pisone 
irritum  fuit.  Ag.  12.  17:  tarda  mitescunt,  cito  proveniunt ;  eadem 
utriusque    rei    causa,    multus    umor   terrarum    caelique.      G.    29.    4: 

Manet  honos  et  antiquae  societatis  insigne; exempti  oneribus 

bellis    reservantur.     Est   in   eodem   obsequio   et   Mattiacorum 

gens ;  etc.  G.  34.  3 :  Maioribus  minoribusque  Frisiis  vocabulum 
est  ex  modo  virium.  Utraeque  nationes  usque  ad  Oceanum  Rheno 
praetereuntur  ambiuntque  inmensos  insuper  lacus  et  Romanis  classi- 
bus  navigates.  H.  V.  14.  7,  after  several  sentences  on  Civilis  and 
Cerialis :  Neuter  ducum  cunctator,  sed  arcebat  latitude  camporum 
suopte  ingenio  umentium  etc.  Ag.  6.  6 :  Sors  quaesturae  provinciam 
Asiam,  pro  consule  Salvium  Titianum  dedit,  quorum  neutro  cor- 
ruptus  est.  (Neuter  is  never  used  by  Tacitus  w^ithout  some  other 
regular  means  of  expressing  sentence  connection.) 

The  following  examples  of  demonstrative  pronouns  used 
with  a  conjunction  are  introduced  here  partly  to  show  that 
the  connection  between  clauses  is  essentially  unchanged  by 
the  addition  of  the  conjunction  and  partly  as  evidence  to  be 
used  later  in  discussing  the  statement,  often  made,  that  qui 
is  equivalent  to  et  is.  Twenty-seven  conjunctions  are  used 
with  demonstratives,  exactly  as  they  are  frequently  used 
with  a  word  repeated  from  the  preceding  clause :  to  supple- 
ment the  other  means  of  sentence  connection  without 
changing  it. 

Ann.  I.  41.  14:  plurimi  ad  Germanicum  regressi.  Isque  ut  erat 
recens  dolore  et  ira,  apud  circumfusos  ita  coepit.  Ann.  I.  11.  i: 
Versae  inde  ad  Tiberium  preces.  Et  ille  varie  disserebat  de  magni- 
tudine  imperii,  sua  modestia.  H.  II.  16.  19 :  Capita  ut  hostium 
ipsi  interf ectores  ad  Othonem  tulere ;  neque  eos  aut  Otho  praemio 
adfecit  aut  puniit  Vitellius,  in  multa  conluvie  rerum  maioribus 
flagitiis  permixtos.  Ag.  11.  2:  Habitus  corporum  varii:  atque  ex 
eo  argumenta.  Ag.  14.  10:  Didium  Veranius  excepit,  isque  intra 
annum  exstinctus  est.  Ag.  18.  4:  Ordovicum  civitas  baud  multo 
ante  adventum  eius  alam  in  finibus  suis  agentem  prope  universam 
obtriverat,  eoque  initio  erecta  provincia.  G.  36.  i :  Cherusci 
nimiam  ac  marcentem  diu  pacem  inlacessiti  nutrierunt:  idque 
iucundius  quam  tutius  fuit,  etc. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         6i 

The  following  demonstrative  adverbs  are  used  by  Taci- 
tus to  express  exactly  the  same  sort  of  connection  between 
consecutive  sentences  or  clauses:  adeo,  adhuc,  dehinc, 
eoque,  hactenus,  hie,  hinc,  ihi,  ideo,  illic,  illuc,  inde,  ita, 
postea,  posthac,  sic,  utrimque  and  utrobique.  With  these 
should  be  included  the  demonstrative  adjectives  talis  and 
tantus,  tot  and  totidem.  The  examples  of  the  use  of  these 
words  are,  like  those  falling  under  the  last  head,  very 
numerous.     The  following  will  serve  as  illustrations : 

Ann.  I.  3.  14:  Nero  solus  e  privignis  erat,  illuc  cuncta  vergere 
etc.  H.  IV.  6.  11:  Ceterum  eo  senatus  die,  quo  de  imperio  Ves- 
pasiani  censebant,  placuerat  mitti  ad  principem  legates.  Hinc  inter 
Helvidium  et  Eprium  acre  iurgium :  etc.  H.  V.  23.  11:  His  flumen 
secundum,  illi  vento  agebantur :  sic  praetervecti  temptato  levium 
telorum  iactu  dirimuntur.  Ann.  I.  10.  32 :  Ceterum  sepultura  more 
perfecta  templum  et  caelestes  religiones  decernuntur.  Versae  inde 
ad  Tiberium  preces.  H.  IV.  28.  2:  Ille,  ut  cuique  proximum,  vas- 
tari  Ubios  Treverosque,  et  aliam  manum  Mosam  amnem  transire 
iubet,  ut  Menapios  et  Morinos  et  extrema  Galliarum  quateret. 
Actae  utrobique  praedae  etc.  Ann.  XIV.  24.  3 :  Ad  hoc  penuria 
aquae,  fervida  aestas,  longinqua  itinera  sola  ducis  patientia  miti- 
gabantur,  eadem  pluraque  gregario  milite  tolerantis.  Ventum 
dehinc  in  locos  cuUos  demessaeque  segetes  etc.  H.  III.  31.  22: 
superbiam  saevitiamque  (adeo  invisa  scelera  sunt),  etiam  perfidiam. 
obiectabant.  Ann.  I.  35.  23 :  ac  spatium  fuit,  quo  Caesar  ab  amicis 
in  tabernaculum  raperetur.  Consultatum  ibi  de  remedio;  etc.  H. 
I.  27.  12:  Ibi  tres  et  viginti  speculatores  consalutatum  imperatorem 
ac  paucitate  salutantium  trepidum  et  sellae  festinanter  impositum 
strictis  mucronibus  rapiunt;  totidem  ferme  milites  in  itinere  adgre- 
gantur,  etc.     H.  II.  48.  i,  after  a  speech  by  Otho :    Talia  locutus,  ut 

cuique  aetas  aut  dignitas,  comiter  appellatos,  irent  propere 

movebat  etc. 

Tantus  is  not  easy  to  classify :  when  used  in  this  demon- 
strative sense,  Tacitus  always  puts  with  it  a  noun  which 
practically  repeats  an  element  of  meaning  from  the  first 
clause.  For  example,  Ann.  XII.  66.  i,  after  a  paragraph 
on  the  difficulties  attending  the  plots  against  Claudius: 
In  tanta  mole  curarum  valetudine  adversa  corripitur  etc. 
Ann.   I.    II.    i:    Et  ille   varie   disserebat   de  magnitudine 


62  Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

imperii,  sua  modestia.  Solam  divi  Augusti  mentem  tantae 
molis  capacem  etc.  H.  IV.  58.  25 :  An,  si  ad  moenia  urbis 
Germani  Gallique  duxerint,  arnia  patriae  inferetis?  Horret 
animus  tanti  flagitii  imagine.  In  other  cases  tantus  is 
correlative  with  quantiis  or  nt,  expressed  or  clearly  under- 
stood. 

The  use  of  demonstratives  in  the  first  of  two  consecutive 
clauses,  expressing  the  connection  between  them,  has  been 
treated  in  the  second  chapter. 

f.  It  remains  to  support  with  evidence  the  statement 
already  made  that  the  sentence  connection  established  by 
the  use  of  a  relative  clause  does  not  differ  essentially  from 
that  effected  by  a  clause  with  a  demonstrative  pronoun.  It 
is  undeniably  true  that  in  the  development  of  the  language 
the  relative  pronoun  was  used  more  to  express  this  particu- 
lar kind  of  connection  than  any  other  one  of  the  means 
here  cited,  and  that  by  being  so  used  the  clause  with  a 
relative  received  more  fixed  and  definite  form  than  the  other 
similar  means  of  repeating  an  element  from  a  preceding 
clause.  In  this  way  there  developed  uses  of  the  relative 
which  cannot  be  paralleled  in  clauses  with  a  demonstrative. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  enough  cases  of  exact 
parallels  between  the  use  of  a  demonstrative  and  that  of  a 
relative  to  show  that  the  fundamental  element  which  serves 
in  each  case  to  express  the  relation  of  clauses,  is  the  same. 
This  fundamental  element  is  the  repetition  of  something  in 
the  clause  preceding  the  one  in  which  the  relative  or  demon- 
strative is  used.  The  following  paragraphs  give  examples 
of  various  uses  in  which  the  two  sorts  of  pronouns  are 
employed  without  any  essential  difference  in  the  resulting 
connection.  But  first,  an  interesting  illustration  of  the 
interchangeability  of  the  two  with  each  other  and  with  the 
use  of  a  simple  repeated  word,  is  afforded  by  H.  I.  58.  12. 
As  it  stands  in  the  manuscripts  this  passage  reads :  Interim 
ut  piaculum  obicitur  centurio  Crispinus ....  sanguine  Cap- 
itonis cruentaverat.     In  the  second  lacuna  Gronovius 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.  6^ 

supplied  se,  which  seems  certain.  In  the  first  Haase  sup- 
plied Is.  As  far  as  making  the  meaning-  of  the  sentence 
and  its  connection  with  the  preceding  sentence  clear,  noth- 
ing is  actually  required  before  sanguine.  The  understood 
subject  of  se  cruentaverat  is  so  evidently  Crispinus  and  the 
pluperfect  with  its  explanatory  force  so  evidently  shows  the 
object  of  the  sentence  to  explain  the  ofifering  up  of  Cris- 
pinus, that  nothing  further  is  needed.  But  if  a  word  is 
to  be  added  there  are  at  least  three  possibilities,  still  consid- 
ering the  meaning  and  logical  connection  only.  Crispinus 
might  be  used  by  way  of  direct  repetition;  is  may  be 
supplied  with  Haase  or,  with  equal  satisfaction,  qui,  deleting 
the  period,  A  fourth  possibility  might  be  the  use  of  some 
such  word  as  vir  which  would  virtually  repeat  Crispinus. 
Certainly  for  clearness  of  meaning  and  clause  relation  there 
is  little  to  choose  between  qui  and  is. 

Most  numerous  and  most  familiar  of  all  the  parallel  uses 
of  relatives  and  demonstratives  is  that  in  which  the  pronoun 
is  the  subject  of  the  second  of  two  consecutive  clauses. 
The  use  with  the  demonstrative  has  already  been  illustrated 
but  for  convenience  in  making  comparisons  in  this  as  well  as 
in  the  following  paragraphs,  some  examples  of  the  demon- 
strative usage  are  given  after  those  of  the  relative.  Exam- 
ples of  this  first  group  are  the  following: 

RELATIVES.  Ann.  I.  i.  5:  et  Pompeii  Crassique  potentia  cito 
in  Caesarem,  Lepidi  atque  Antonii  arma  in  Augustum  cessere.  qui 
cuncta  discordiis  civilibus  fessa  nomine  principis  sub  imperium 
accepit.  Ag.  42.  7 :  postremo  non  iam  obscuri  suadentes  simul 
terrentesque  pertraxere  ad  Domitianum.  Qui  paratus  simulatione, 
in  adrogantiam  compositus,  et  audiit  preces  excusantis  et,  cum 
adnuisset,  agi  sibi  gratias  passus  est  nee  erubuit  beneficii  invidia. 
H.  II.  100.  8:  sic  sibi  cum  Caecina  convenisse.  Qui  praesens  eoque 
validior  mutatum  id  consilium  finxit,  ut  ingruenti  bello  tota  mole 
occurreretur.  D.  38.  i :  Transeo  ad  formam  et  consuetudinem 
veterum  iudiciorum.  Quae  etsi  nunc  aptior  extiterit,  eloquentiam 
tamen  illud  forum  magis  exercebat,  in  quo  nemo  intra  paucissimas 
perorare  boras  cogebatur  etc.  Ag.  11.  15:  Nam  Gallos  quoque  in 
bellis  floruisse  accepimus,  mox  segnitia  cum  otio  intravit,  amissa 
virtute  pariter  ac  libertate.    Quod  Britannorum  olim  victis  evenit: 


64         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

ceteri  manent  quales  Galli  fuerunt.  Ann.  III.  38.  15:  Coelaletae 
Odrusaeque  et  Dii,  validae  nationes,  arma  cepere,  ducibus  diversis 
et  paribus  inter  se  per  ignobilitatem ;  quae  causa  f  uit,  ne  in  bellum 
atrox  coalescerent.  Ann.  XVI.  17.  23,  after  an  account  of  manu- 
factured charges :  Quae  composita  credebantur  de  Crispino,  quia 
interfectus  erat,  de  Ceriale,  ut  interficeretur.  H.  I.  86.  8:  Sed 
praecipuus  et  cum  praesenti  exitio  etiam  futuri  paver  subita  inunda- 

tione  Tiberis,   qui   inmenso  auctu non  modo  iacentia   et  plana 

urbis  loca,  sed  secura  eius  modi  causuum  implevit  etc. 

DEMONSTRATIVES.  H.  I.  57.  i:  Proxima  legionis  primae 
hiberna  erant  et  promptissimus  e  legatis  Fabius  Valens.  Is  die 
proximo  coloniam  Agrippinensem  cum  equitibus  legionis  auxiliar- 
iorumque  ingressus  imperatorem  Vitellium  consalutavit.  Ann.  I. 
6.  15:  Quod  postquam  Sallustius  Crispus  particeps  secretorum  (is 
ad  tribunum  miserat  codicillos)  comperit,  etc.  H.  I.  49.  4:  Caput 
per  lixas  calonesque  confixum  laceratumque  ante  Patrobii  tumulum 
(libertus  is  Neronis  punitus  a  Galba  fuerat)  postera  demum  die 
repertum  et  cremato  iam  corpori  admixtum  est.  Ann.  I.  24.  i,  fol- 
lowing an  account  of  conspiracy  and  revolt:  Haec  audita  quam- 
quam  abstrusum  et  tristissima  quaeque  maxime  occultantem  Tibe- 
rium  perpulere  etc.  Ann.  I.  28.  13 :  accitur  centurio  Clemens  et  si 
alii  bonis  artibus  grati  in  vulgus.  Hi  vigiliis,  stationibus,  custodiis 
portarum  se  inserunt,  spem  oflferunt,  metum  intendunt.  Ann.  I.  35. 
21  :  et  miles  nomine  Calusidius  strictum  obtulit  gladium,  addito 
acutiorem  esse.  Saevum  id  malique  moris  etiam  furentibus  visum, 
ac  spatium  fuit,  quo  Caesar  ab  amicis  in  tabernaculum  raperetur. 

There  is  no  essential  difference  between  the  examples  in 
the  last  paragraph  and  very  many  others  in  which  the 
demonstrative  or  relative  appears,  still  without  any  prepo- 
sition or  noun,  but  in  other  cases  than  the  nominative. 

ACCUSATIVE.  Ann.  IV.  7.  i  :  Quae  cuncta  non  quidem  comi 
via,  sed  horridus  ac  plerumque  formidatus,  retinebat  tamen  donee 
morte  Drusi  verterentur.  Compare  Ag.  20.  i :  Haec  primo  statim 
anno  comprimendo  egregiam  famam  paci  circumdedit,  quae  vel 
incuria  vel  intolerantia  priorum  baud  minus  quam  bellum  timebatur. 

Ann.  XIII.  36.  9:  Et  damno  eius  exterriti  qui  subsidium  ferre 
debuerant,  sua  quisque  in  castra  trepida  fuga  rediere.  Quod  gravi- 
ter  Corbulo  accepit  etc.  Compare  Ann.  I.  28.  2 :  nam  luna  claro 
repente  caelo  visa  languescere.  Id  miles  rationis  ignarus  omen 
praesentium  accepit  etc. 

Ann.  VI.  38.  I :  Quae  duabus  aestatibus  gesta  coniunxi,  quo 
requiesceret  animus  e  domesticis  malis ;    etc.     Compare  Ann.  XV. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.  65 

6.  I :  Haec  plures  nt  formidine  regis  et  Corbulonis  minis  patrata 
ac  magnifica  extollebant :    etc. 

H.  I.  6.  11:  multi  ad  hoc  numeri  e  Germania  ac  Britannia  et 
Illyrico,  quos  idem  Nero  electos  praemissosque  ad  claustra  Cas- 
piarum  et  bellum,  quod  in  Albanos  parabat,  opprimendis  Vindicis 
coeptis  revocaverat  etc.  Compare  H.  IV.  46.  10:  ceterique  per 
urbem  et  urbi  vicina  conquisiti  producuntur  prope  intecto  corpore. 
Eos  Mucianus  diduci  et  Germanicum  Britannicumque  militem,  ac 
si  qui  aliorum  exercituum,  separatim  adsistere  iubet.  Illos  primus 
statim  adspectus  obstupefecerat  etc. 

GENITIVE.     H.  I.  48.  7 :    legatum  Calvisium  Sabinum  habuerat, 

cuius    uxor    mala    cupidine    visendi    situm    castrorum in    ipsis 

principiis  stuprum  ansa  est.  Compare  Ann.  I.  33.  i :  Interea 
Germanico  per  Gallias,  ut  diximus,  census  accipienti  excessisse 
Augustum  adfertur.  Neptem  eius  Agrippinam  in  matrimonio  plu- 
resque  ex  ea  liberos  habebat  etc. 

H.  I.  61.  7:  triginta  milia  Caecina  e  superiore  Germania  ducebat, 
quorum  robur  legio  unaetvicensima  fuit.  Compare  Ann.  I.  21.  i, 
after  a  description  of  the  arrival  of  some  new  troops :  Horum 
adventu  redintegratur  seditio  etc. 

Ann.  III.  16.  6 :  nee  ilium  sponte  extinctum,  verum  inmisso  per- 
cussore.  Quorum  neutrum  adseveraverim  etc.  Compare  H.  II. 
34.  I,  after  an  account  of  troubles  in  Otho's  forces :  Nihil  eorum 
Vitellianos  fallebat  etc. 

DATIVE.  Ann.  XV.  10.  15:  Coniunx  ac  filius  castello,  cui 
Arsamosata  nomen  est,  abditi  etc.  Compare  H.  I.  48.  5:  Titus 
Vinius  quinquaginta  septem  annos  variis  moribus  egit.  Pater  illi 
praetoria  familia,  maternus  avus  e  proscriptis.  The  following 
examples  form  better  parallels  to  this  use  of  the  relative  than  any 
cases  with  the  demonstrative,  and  illustrate  well  the  underlying 
element  of  repetition :  Ann.  IV.  28.  i :  Isdem  consulibus  miseriarum 
ac  saevitiae  exemplum  atrox,  reus  pater,  accusator  filius  (nomen 
utrique  Vibius  Serenus)  in  senatum  inducti  sunt.  Ann.  VI.  41.  6: 
duos  colles  quos  barbari  insederant  (minori  Cadra,  alteri  Davara 
nomen  est),  operibus  circumdedit  etc.  Ann.  I.  45.  2:  sexagensi- 
mum  apud  lapidem  (loco  Vetera  nomen  est)  hibernantium.  Ann. 
XV.  37.  16 :  nisi  paucos  post  dies  uni  ex  illo  contaminatorum  grege 
(nomen  Pythagorae  fuit)  in  modum  sollemnium  coniugiorum 
denupsisset.  The  connection  between  the  clause  containing  the 
dative  and  the  other  clause  is  the  same  in  each  of  these  sentences 
and  furthermore  is  the  same  as  that  expressed  by  the  similar  use 
of  the  relative.  For  example,  Ann.  II.  80.  2 :  sed  castellum  Ciliciae 
munitum  admodum,  cui  nomen  Celenderis,  occupat.  Even  in  the 
case  from  Ann.  XV,  in  which  the  word  in  the  dative,  which  repeats 


66  Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

an  element  from  the  other  clause,  is  only  implied  by  the  Pythagorae, 
attracted  into  the  dative,  the  relation  of  clauses  is  as  clear  as  when 
expressed  by  the  relative. 

ABLATIVE.  Ann.  VI.  13.  i  :  Isdem  consulibus  gravitate 
annonae  iuxta  seditionem  ventum,  multaque  et  plures  per  dies  in 
theatro  licentius  efflagitata,  quam  solitum  adversum  imperatorem. 
Quis  commotus  incusavit  magistratus  patresque  etc.  Compare  Ann. 
XI.  36.  4:  nee  cuiquam  ante  pereundum  fuisse,  si  Silius  rerum 
poteretur.  Commotum  his  et  pronum  ad  misericordiam  Caesarem 
perpulere  liberti  etc.  The  same  connection  is  expressed  by  talibus 
curis  exercitiis  in  Ag.  39.  12. 

Ag.  38.  10:  nemo  exploratoribus  obvius.  Quibus  in  omnem 
partem  dimissis in  fines  Borestorum  exercitum  deducit.  Com- 
pare Ann.  VI.  36.  II  :  Nee  iam  aliud  Artabano  reliquum,  quam  si 
qui  externorum  corpori  custodes  aderant,  suis  quisque  sedibus 
extorres,  quis  neque  boni  intellectus  neque  mali  cura,  sed  mercede 
aluntur  ministri  sceleribus.  His  adsumptis  in  longinqua  et  conter- 
mina  Scythiae  fugam  maturavit  etc. 

Ann.  II.  64.  7:  Omnem  eam  nationem  Rhoemetalces  tenuerat; 
quo  defuncto  Augustus  partem  Thraecum  Rhescuporidi  fratri  eius, 
partem  filio  Cotyi  permisit.  Compare  Ag.  40.  8:  eumque  libertum 
in  ipso  freto  Oceani  obvium  Agricolae,  ne  appellato  quidem  eo  ad 
Domitianum  remeasse,  etc. 

D.  4.  5 :  quo  laetor  magis  oblatum  nobis  iudicem  etc.  Compare 
H.  I.  72.  15 :   Eo  infensior  populus  etc. 


The  parallel  between  clauses  with  relatives  and  others 
with  demonstratives  is  further  illustrated  by  examples  in 
which  a  substantive  is  used  with  the  pronoun.  The  fol- 
lowing' are  selected  from  a  very  large  number : 

H.  II.  26.  2:  nam  Caecina  non  simul  cohortes,  sed  singulas 
acciverat,  quae  res  in  proelio  trepidationem  auxit  etc.  Compare  H. 
IV.  71.  7:  socii  ad  munia  pacis  redirent  securi  velut  confecto  bello, 
quod  Romanae  manus  excepissent.  Auxit  ea  res  Gallorum  obse- 
quium  etc. 

Ann.  XIV.  17.  6:  Ergo  deportati  sunt  in  urbem  multi  e  Nucerinis 
trunco  per  vulnera  corpore  ac  plerique  liberorum  aut  parentium 
mortes  deflebant.  Cuius  rei  indicium  princeps  senatui,  senatus  con- 
sulibus permisit.  Compare  Ann.  XL  25.  13 :  monendo,  secum 
quisque  de  se  consultaret  peteretque  ius  exuendi  ordinis :  f  acilem 
eius  rei  veniam. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.  67 

D.  28.  22 :  Sic  Corneliam  Gracchorum,  sic  Aureliam  Caesaris,  sic 
Atiam  Augusti  praefuisse  educationibus  ac  produxisse  principes 
liberos  accepimus.  Quae  disciplina  ac  severitas  eo  pertinebat,  ut 
etc.  Compare  H.  III.  71.  21  :  Sic  Capitolium  clausis  foribus 
indefensum  et  indireptiim  conflagravit.  Id  facinus  post  conditam 
urbem  luctuosissimum  foedissimumque  rei  publicae  populi  Romani 
accidit  etc. 

Ag.  29.  I :  Initio  aestatis  Agricola  domestico  vulnere  ictus,  anno 
ante  natum  filium  amisit.  Quern  casum  neque  ut  plerique  fortium 
virorum  ambitiose,  neque  per  lamenta  rursus  ac  maerorem  mulie- 
briter  tulit  etc.  Compare  Ag.  38.  17:  Et  simul  classis  secunda 
tempestate  ac  fama  Truculensem  portum  tenuit,  unde  proximo  anno, 

Britanniae  litore  lecto  omni,  reditura  erat.     Hunc  rerum  cursum 

ut  Domitiani  moris  erat,  fronte  laetus,  pectore  anxius  excepit. 

Ag.  22.  I :  Tertius  expeditionum  annus  novas  gentis  aperuit, 
vastatis  usque  ad  Tanaum  (aestuario  nomen  est)  nationibus.  Qua 
formidine  territi  hostes  quamquam  conflictatum  saevis  tempestatibus 
exercitum  lacessere  non  ausi  etc.  Compare  H.  III.  41.  10:  pudor 
tamen  et  praesentis  ducis  reverentia  morabatur,  baud  diuturna 
vincla  apud  pavidos  periculorum  et  dedecoris  secures.  Eo  metu 
cohortes  Ariminum  praemittit  etc. 

Another  group  of  examples  illustrating  the  fundamental 
similarity  in  the  use  of  the  relative  and  the  demonstrative 
consists  of  cases  in  which  a  preposition  is  used  with  the 
pronoun.  This  again  is  a  very  frequent  usage,  of  which 
the  following  cases  are  examples : 

H.  II.  86.  5 :  Praepositus  a  Galba  septimae  legioni  scriptitasse 
Othoni  credebatur,  ducem  se  partibus  offerens;  a  quo  neglectus  in 
nullo  Othoniani  belli  usu  f uit.  Compare  H.  IV.  53.  i :  Curam 
restituendi  Capitolii  in  L.  Vestinum  confert,  equestris  ordinis  virum, 
sed  auctoritate  famaque  inter  proceres.  Ab  eo  contracti  haruspices 
monuere  etc. 

Ann.  XIV.  55.  i,  after  a  speech  by  Seneca:  Ad  quae  Nero  sic 
ferme  respondit  etc.  Compare  Ann.  XV.  14.  i,  after  an  account 
of  letters  sent  by  Paetus :  Ad  ea  Vologeses  nihil  pro  causa,  sed 
opperiendos  sibi  fratres  Pacorum  ac  Tiridatem  rescripsit  etc. 

Ann.  III.  69.  4 :  Nam  a  legibus  delicta  puniri :  quanto  fore 
mitius  in  ipsos,  melius  in  socios,  provideri  ne  peccaretur? 
Adversum  quae  disseruit  Caesar :  etc.  Compare  Ann  XV.  59.  5 : 
magnamque  motae  rei  famam,  quae  plurimum  in  novis  consiliis 
valeret.       Nihil  adversum  haec  Neroni  provisum. 


68         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

Ann.  XL  35.  6:  Incensumque  et  ad  minas  erumpentem  castris 
infert,  parata  contione  militum;  apud  quos  praemonente  Narcisso 
pauca  verba  fecit  etc.  Compare  G.  2.  21 :  mox  etiam  a  se  ipsis 
invento  nomine  Germani  vocarentur.  Fuisse  apud  eos  et  Herculem 
memorant  etc. 

D.  8.  I :  Ausim  contendere  Marcellum  hunc  Eprium,  de  quo  mode 

locutus    sum,    et    Crispum    Vibium non    minus    notos    esse 

etc.  Compare  Ann.  III.  58.  5 :  porro,  si  hi  duxissent  provincias,  cur 
Dialibus  id  vetitum?  Nulla  de  eo  populi  scita,  non  in  libris 
caerimoniarum  reperiri. 

D.  16.  20:  vos  autem  Demosthenem  et  Hyperidem  profertis,  quos 
satis  constat  Philippi  et  Alexandri  temporibus  floruisse,  ita  tamen 
ut  utrique  superstites  essent.  Ex  quo  apparet  non  multo  plures 
quam  quadringentos  annos  interesse  etc.  Compare  Ann.  IV.  54.  6: 
idque  quo  acrius  experiretur,  poma  ut  erant  adposita,  laudans  nurui 
sua  manu  tradidit.  Aucta  ex  eo  suspicio  Agrippinae,  et  intacta 
ore  servis  tramisit. 

H.  I.  52.  12:  Sed  profusa  cupidine  et  insigni  temeritate  legati 
legionum  Alienus  Caecina  et  Fabius  Valens;  e  quibus  Valens 
infensus  Galbae  etc.  Compare  Ann.  II.  20.  i,  after  an  account  of 
the  disposition  of  the  German  troops:  Nihil  ex  his  Caesari 
incognitum  etc. 

Very  many  paragraphs  which  follow  a  long  list  of  events  or 
some  continuous  action  begin  with  Inter  quae.  Ann.  I.  12,  IV. 
57,  XIV.  22  furnish  examples  of  this  usage.  With  these  should 
be  compared  Ann.  XI.  35.  i  :  Mirum  inter  haec  silentium  Claudii 
etc.  D.  39.  13 :  unus  inter  haec  dicenti  aut  alter  adsistit,  et  res 
velut  in  solitudine  agitur.  Interea  is  often  used  in  just  the  same 
way  (for  example,  in  Ann.  I.  20.  i,  and  IV.  51.  i)  and  the  connec- 
tion with  the  preceding  paragraph  is  the  same  in  H.  II.  61.  i,  in 
which  case  a  noun  is  used :   Inter  magnorum  virorum  discrimina. 

Ann.  II.  30.  14:  Tiberius  mancipari  singulos  actori  publico  iubet, 
scilicet  ut  in  Libonem  ex  servis  salvo  senatus  consulto  quaereretur. 
Ob  quae  posterum  diem  reus  petivit  etc.  Compare  Ann.  XII.  65. 
I :  Ceterum  obiecta  sunt,  quod  coniugem  principis  devotionibus 
petivisset  quodque  parum  coercitis  per  Calabriam  servorum 
agminibus  pacem  Italiae  turbaret.     Ob  haec  mors  indicta,  etc. 

D.  33.  18:  nee  quisquam  percipere  tot  tam  reconditas  tamque 
varias  res  potest,  nisi  ut  scientiae  meditatio,  meditationi  facultas, 
facultati  usus  eloquentiae  accedat.  Per  quae  colligitur  eandem  esse 
rationem  et  percipiendi  quae  proferas  et  proferendi  quae  perceperis. 
Compare  Ann.  I.  60.  i,  after  a  speech  by  Arminius:  Conciti  per 
haec  non  modo  Cherusci,  sed  conterminae  gentes,  etc. 

H.  II.  49.  I.  after  an  account  of  Otho's  methods  of  arousing 
enthusiasm :    Post  quae  dimotis  omnibus  paulum  requievit.     Com- 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.  69 

pare,  in  a  similar  situation,  Ann.  XL  34.  i :  Crebra  post  haec  fama 
fuit,  etc. 

Further  parallels  between  the  use  of  demonstratives  and 
that  of  relatives  are  to  be  found  in  such  cases  as  have  the 
pronouns  serving  as  subjects  of  some  one  or  other  of  the 
regularly  recognized  "subordinate"  clauses,  such  as  clauses 
with  postquam  or  ubi.  These  examples  are  not  as  frequent 
as  those  under  the  preceding  heads,  but  they  are  very 
numerous  and  the  following  form  only  a  small  part  of  them : 

Ann.  VI.  3.  15:  delectumque  a  Seiano,  cuius  ope  dolus  Gaio 
Caesari  pararetur.  Quod  postquam  patefactum,  prorupere  concepta 
pridem  odia  etc.  Compare  H.  I.  79.  22:  Ibi  saevitia  hiemis  aut 
vulnerum  absumpti.  Postquam  id  Romae  compertum,  M.  Aponius 
Moesiam  obtinens  triumphali  statua,  Fulvus  Aurelius  et  lulianus 
Tettius  ac  Numisius  Lupus,  legati  legionum,  consularibus  orna- 
mentis  donantur  etc. 

Ann.  I.  55.  I  :  decernitur  Germanico  triumphus  manente  bello ; 
quod  quamquam  in  aestatem  summa  ope  parabat,  initio  veris  et 
repentino  in  Chattos  excursu  praecepit.  Compare  Ann.  XIIL  36.  3 : 
curam  praesidiorum  Paccio  Orfito  primi  pili  honore  perfuncto  man- 
dat.  Is  quamquam  incautos  barbaros  et  bene  gerendae  rei  casum 
ofFerri  scripserat,  tenere  se  munimentis  et  maiores  copias  opperiri 
iubetur. 

Ann.  XV.  3.  i,  following  an  account  of  the  movements  of 
Vologeses :    Quae  ubi  Corbuloni  certis  nuntiis  audita  sunt,  legiones 

duas mittit.     Compare  H.  III.  15.  i,  following  an  account  of 

the  soldiers'  revolt  against  Caecina :  Ubi  haec  comperta  Antonio, 
discordes  animis,  discretos  viribus  hostium  exercitus  adgredi 
statuit  etc. 

Ann.  VI.  26.  3 :  Moriendi  consilium  cepit.  Quod  ut  Tiberio 
cognitum,  adsidere,  causas  requirere  etc.  (The  infinitives  are 
historical.)  Compare  H.  II.  78.  9:  Sed  primo  triumphalia  et  con- 
sulatus  et  ludaeicae  victoriae  decus  implesse  fidem  ominis 
videbantur :    ut  haec  adeptus  est,  portendi  sibi  imperium  credebat. 

Finally,  the  uses  of  inde  and  unde  furnish  interesting  par- 
allels. Like  the  simple  relatives  and  demonstratives,  they  do 
not  cover  exactly  the  same  field ;  the  use  of  inde  to  denote 
order  in  a  series  or  in  time,  the  meaning  that  we  express  by 
"next,"    is  not  paralleled  in  Tacitus  by  unde;   nor,  on  the 


70         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

other  hand,  is  the  interrogative  use  of  iinde  paralleled  by  inde. 
But  in  the  following  cases  the  two  are  practically  inter- 
changeable. 

Ann.  III.  55.  15:  Sed  praecipuus  adstricti  moris  auctor 
Vespasianus  fuit,  antique  ipse  cultu  victuque.  Obsequium  inde  in 
principem  et  aemulandi  amor  validior  quam  poena  ex  legibus  et 
metus.  Ann.  IV.  54.  8:  Nee  tamen  Tiberii  vox  coram  secuta, 
sed  obversus  ad  matrem  non  mirum  ait,  si  quid  severius  in  earn 
statuisset,  a  qua  veneficii  insimularetur.  Inde  rumor  parari  exitium, 
neque  id  imperatorem  palam  audere,  secretum  ad  perpetrandum 
quaeri.  Ann.  IV.  58.  5 :  Ferebant  periti  caelestium  iis  motibus 
siderum  excessisse  Roma  Tiberium,  ut  reditus  illi  negaretur.  Unde 
exitii  causa  multis  fuit  properum  finem  vitae  coniectantibus 
vulgantibusque ;  etc.  Ann.  VI.  7.  8:  Q.  Servaeus  posthac  et 
Minucius  Thermus  inducti,  Servaeus  praetura  functus  et  quondam 
Germanici  comes,  Minucius  equestri  loco,  modeste  habita  Seiani 
amicitia;  unde  illis  maior  miseratio.  Ann.  VI.  50.  14:  Charicles 
tamen  labi  spiritum  nee  ultra  biduum  duraturum  Macroni  firmavit. 
Inde  cuncta  conloquiis  inter  praesentes,  nuntiis  apud  legatos  et  exer- 
citus  festinabantur.  Ann.  XIII.  9.  12:  Atque  illi  <per>  recentem 
gloriam  et  inclinatione  quadam  etiam  hostium  Corbulonem  praetu- 
lere.  Unde  discordia  inter  duces,  etc.  Ann.  XIV.  24.  5 :  Ventum 
dehinc  in  locos  cultos  demessaeque  segetes,  et  ex  duobus  castellis, 
in  quae  confugerant  Armenii,  alterum  impetu  captum;  qui  primam 
vim  depulerant,  obsidione  coguntur.  Unde  in  regionem  Taurau- 
nitium  transgressus  improvisum  periculum  vitavit.  H.  III.  35.  4: 
et  victae  legiones,  ne  manente  adhuc  civili  bello  ambigue  agerent, 
per  Illyricum  dispersae.     In  Britanniam  inde  et  Hispanias  nuntios 

misere.     H.  IV.  33.  8:    Eques  prorupit,  exceptusque  composi- 

tis  hostium  ordinibus  terga  in  suos  vertit.  Caedes  inde,  non  proe- 
lium.  Ag.  10.  11:  Et  est  ea  facies  citra  Caledoniam,  unde  et  in 
universam  fama  est  transgressa,  etc.  Ag.  21.  6:  lam  vero  princi- 
pum  filios  liberalibus  artibus  erudire,  et  ingenia  Britannorum  studiis 
Gallorum  anteferre,  ut  qui  modo  linguam  Romanam  abnuebant, 
eloquentiam  concupiscerent.  Inde  etiam  habitus  nostri  honor  et 
frequens  toga.  G.  4.  i :  Ipse  eorum  opinioni  accedo,  qui  Germaniae 
populos  nullis  [aliis]  aliarum  nationum  conubiis  infectos  propriam 
et  sinceram  et  tantum  sui  similem  gentem  extitisse  arbitrantur. 
Unde  habitus  quoque  corporum,  quamquam  in  tanto  hominum 
numero,  idem  omnibus :  etc.  G.  26.  6 :  Nee  enim  cum  ubertate  et 
amplitudine  soli  labore  contendunt,  ut  pomaria  conserant  et  prata 
separent  et  hortos  rigent:  sola  terrae  seges  imperatur.  Unde 
annum  quoque  ipsum  non  in  totidem  digerunt  species :    etc. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.  71 

To  sum  up  the  results  of  the  comparison  between  the  use 
of  the  relative  pronoun  and  that  of  the  demonstrative,  the 
following  points  seem  clear.  First,  there  are  very  many 
cases  in  which  the  two  uses  are  interchangeable  and  in  which 
Tacitus  uses  now  one  and  now  the  other.  Second,  the  use 
of  a  conjunction  with  the  demonstrative  is  not  necessary  to 
give  it  the  same  force  that  the  relative  has ;  in  other  words, 
the  frequently  made  statement  that  et  is  is  equivalent  to  qui 
is  misguiding,  for  the  demonstrative  alone  is  very  often 
entirely  parallel  to  the  relative.  Third,  there  is,  in  general, 
no  essential  difference  between  the  sentence  connection 
established  in  these  two  different  ways ;  in  both  uses,  the 
fundamental  element  which  establishes  the  connection  is 
the  element  of  repetition.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper 
to  go  into  the  historical  development  of  any  form  of  sentence 
connection,  but  the  usage  of  Tacitus  in  this  particular  mat- 
ter makes  it  fairly  obvious  that  the  various  forms  of  sen- 
tence connection,  grouped  here  under  the  head  of  repetition, 
all  develop  from  the  same  original  type  of  connection. 
Evidently  the  use  of  the  relative  pronoun  was  more  fre- 
quently employed  than  the  rest  and  it  therefore  became 
a  more  fixed  type  of  so-called  subordinate  construction,  but 
there  are  so  very  many  instances  in  Tacitus  of  the  parallel 
use  of  other  forms  of  repetition  that  these  must  also  be 
reckoned  with  in  any  study  of  the  means  used,  even  in 
Latin  of  a  late  period,  for  expressing  the  relation  of  one 
sentence  to  another. 

g.  The  foregoing  discussion  of  relatives  and  demonstra- 
tives interrupted  the  classification  of  the  various  means  used 
by  Tacitus  to  virtually  repeat  in  the  second  of  two  consecu- 
tive sentences  some  specific  word  in  the  first.  There  are 
left  two  such  types :  first,  the  use  of  a  noun  in  apposition 
with  the  subject  of  the  second  clause  and  virtually  repeating 
some  noun  of  the  first  clause ;  second,  the  use  of  repetition 
implied  or  understood.  The  first  of  these  is  a  type  used  but 
rarely  by  Tacitus.     It  is  not  uncommon  in  English :    for 


72         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

example,  Tennyson  has  (in  Lady  Clara  Vera  de  Vere)  : 
"The  daughter  of  a  hundred  Earls,  you  are  not  one  to  be 
desired."  The  noun  has  exactly  the  same  function  that  a 
clause  would  have  in  the  same  place — in  this  case,  a  conces- 
sive clause — and  its  connection  with  the  rest  of  its  own 
sentence  is  really  more  interesting  than  its  reference  to  the 
preceding  one.     Examples  from  Tacitus  are: 

Ann.     II.    88.     8:      ceterum     Arminius dolo    propinquorum 

cecidit:     liberator    hand    dubie    Germaniae proeliis    ambiguus, 

bello  non  victus.  H.  I.  49.  16:  Dum  vigebat  aetas,  militari  laude 
apud  Germanias  floruit.  Proconsule  Africam  moderate,  iam  senior 
citeriorem  Hispaniam  pari  iustitia  continuit,  etc.  H.  III.  62.  9: 
Ludicro  luvenalium  sub  Nerone  velut  ex  necessitate,  mox  sponte 
mimos  actitavit,  scite  magis  quam  probe.  Legatus  legionis  et  fovit 
Verginium  et  infamavit;   etc.     H.  I.  73.  i:    Per  idem  tempus  expos- 

tulata  ad  supplicium   Calvia   Crispinilla periculo  exempta   est. 

Magistra  libidinum  Neronis,  transgressa  in  Africam  ad  instigandum 

in    arma    Clodium    Macrum totius    postea    civitatis    gratiam 

obtinuit  etc.  II.  II.  25.  6:  Signum  pugnae  non  statim  a  Suetonio 
Paulino  pediti  datum :  cunctator  natura  et  cui  cauta  potius  con- 
silia  cum  ratione  quam  prospera  ex  casu  placerent,  compleri  fossas, 
aperiri  campum,  pandi  aciem  iubebat  etc.  Ag.  30.  14:  nulla  iam 
ultra  gens,  nihil  nisi  fluctus  et  saxa,  et  infestiores  Romani  quorum 
superbiam  frustra  per  obsequium  ac  modestiam  effugeris.  Raptores 
orbis,  postquam  cuncta  vastantibus  defuere  terrae,  iam  et  mare 
scrutantur :   etc. 

Rather  more  frequent  in  Tacitus  is  the  usage  almost 
identical  with  this,  in  which  an  adjective  stands  in  the  same 
way  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  sentence  fulfilling  the 
function  that  would  more  often  be  filled  by  a  clause.  The 
adjective  is  often  virtually  a  substantive  and  therefore  equiv- 
alent to  a  noun  in  apposition  with  the  subject  of  the  second 
sentence.  This  usage  is  also  not  infrequent  in  English. 
For  example.  Genesis  XLIX.  4:  "Unstable  as  water,  thou 
shalt  not  excel."  It  is  perhaps  more  accurate  to  say  that 
the  adjective  is  really  in  agreement  with  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun understood.  This  noun  or  pronoun  if  expressed  would 
be  like  the  nouns  in  the  four  cases  cited  above.    There  is, 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         73 

then,  some  question  as  to  whether  these  adjective  cases  should 
be  included  in  the  present  class  or  grouped  with  the  cases 
of  repetition  understood,  dealt  with  in  the  next  paragraph. 
There  is,  further,  a  question  as  to  whether  the  examples  in 
the  present  paragraph  show  the  virtual  repetition  merely  of 
some  word  of  the  first  clause  or  add  to  that  word  to  such 
an  extent  that  they  should  be  grouped  rather  with  examples 
of  types  in  which,  not  a  particular  word,  but  an  element  of 
meaning,  is  repeated.  But  the  categories  themselves  are  of 
little  value.  Therefore,  since  these  examples  all  show  refer- 
ence, at  least,  in  the  second  clause  to  some  definite  word  in 
the  first  and  since  the  adjectives  are  virtually  substantives, 
they  are  all  grouped  together  for  convenience,  under  the 
present  head.  Examples  of  the  usage  with  adjectives  are 
the  following: 

Ann.  IV.  73.  11:  Turn  tres  leves  cohortes  ac  rursum  duae,  dein 
tempore  interiecto  alarius  eques  inmissus :  satis  validi,  si  simul 
incubuissent,  per  intervallum  adventantes  neque  constantiam  addi- 
derant  turbatis  et  pavore  fugientium  auferebantur.  H.  II.  21.  i : 
Sed  primus  dies  inpetu  magis  quam  veterani  exercitus  artibus  tran- 
sactus :  aperti  incautique  muros  subiere,  cibo  vinoque  praegraves. 
H.  II.  94.  2 :  Sibi  quisque  militiam  sumpsere :  quamvis  indignus,  si 
ita  maluerat,  urbanae  militiae  adscribebatur  etc.  H.  III.  31.  6: 
Gregarius  miles  futuri  socors  et  ignobilitate  tutior  perstabat:  vagi 
per  vias,  in  domibus  abditi  pacem  ne  tum  quidem  orabant,  cum 
bellum  posuissent.  G.  24.  9 :  Victus  voluntariam  servitutem  adit : 
quamvis  iuvenior,  quamvis  robustior,  adligari  se  ac  venire  patitur. 
G.  46.  18:  Sed  beatius  arbitrantur  quam  ingemere  agris,  inlaborare 
domibus,  suas  alienasque  f  ortunas  spe  metuque  versare :  securi 
adversus  homines,  securi  adversus  deos  rem  difficillimam  adsecuti 
sunt,  ut  illis  ne  voto  quidem  opus  esset. 

Occasionally,  instead  of  an  adjective,  a  participle  is  used 
in  this  appositional  way.  In  that  case  one  of  two  things  is 
true :  either  the  participle  has  no  verbal  force  and  is  virtually 
an  adjective,  in  which  case  its  use  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
adjectives  discussed  above,  or  else  it  retains  its  verbal  force 
and  is  an  entirely  distinct  means  of  sentence  connection,  to 
6 


74         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

be  discussed  later.     A  single  example  of  each  usage  will 
serve  to  illustrate  the  distinction : 

Ann.  VI.  26.  II :  Ceterum  Agrippinae  pernicies,  quod  vix  credibile, 
Plancinam  traxit.  Nupta  olim  Cn.  Pisoni  et  palam  laeta  morte 
Germanici,  cum  Piso  caderet,  precibus  Augustae  nee  minus  inimi- 
citiis  Agrippinae  defensa  erat.  Compare  H.  V.  21.  14:  Et  paucos 
post  dies,  quamquam  periculum  captivitatis  evasisset,  infamiam  non 

vitavit.     Profectus  Novaesium  Bonnamque  ad  visenda  castra 

navibus  remeabat  disiecto  agmine  incuriosis  vigiliis. 

h.  Another  type  of  this  connection  by  repetition  without 
the  actual  use  in  the  second  clause  of  a  word  which  has  been 
already  used  in  the  first,  is  to  be  found  in  those  cases  in 
which  repetition  is  clearly  implied  but  not  expressed.  Since, 
however,  there  are  many  cases  in  which  the  repetition  under- 
stood is  rather  repetition  of  some  element  of  meaning  than 
of  a  specific  word,  and  since,  therefore,  the  category  includes 
many  cases  which  belong  in  the  next  section  rather  than 
in  the  present,  the  discussion  of  implied  repetition  is  reserved 
until  the  examples  of  an  actual  repetition  of  some  element 
of  meaning  have  been  presented. 

3.  In  the  two  groups  of  cases  already  discussed  in  which 
repetition  is  the  connecting  element,  the  examples  all  had 
one  characteristic  in  common ;  the  word  in  which  lay  the 
repetition  always  repeated  either  actually  or  virtually  some 
specific  word  from  the  preceding  clause  and  repeated  it  pre- 
cisely and  in  its  entirety.  The  present  section  contains  a 
different  type  of  cases ;  it  is  no  longer  an  actual  word  which 
is  repeated  but  the  meaning  of  some  word  or  group  of 
words  in  the  first  sentence  is  repeated  by  a  single  word  in 
the  second.  This  may  be  done  by  repeating  in  a  different 
part  of  speech  the  fundamental  meaning  of  some  word 
used  in  the  preceding  sentence ;  or  by  using  in  the  second 
clause  a  word,  usually  abstract,  which  expresses  in  summary 
some  idea  from  the  first  clause ;  or  finally  by  employing  in 
the  second  clause  a  word  which  virtually  repeats  a  part  only 
of  some  noun  in  the  first  clause. 


Connection  Expressed  hi  the  Second  Clause.         75 

a.  In  the  cases  which  fall  under  the  first  of  these  three 
divisions,  the  expression  of  the  sentence  connection  still 
lies  in  two  words,  one  in  each  sentence.  But  the  second  no 
longer  repeats  the  first  either  literally  or  by  synonym. 
Instead,  it  repeats  merely  the  fundamental  meaning  of  the 
first  used  in  a  new  way :  either  the  two  words  are  different 
parts  of  speech  or  at  least  they  belong  to  different  classes 
of  the  same  part  of  speech ;  for  example,  a  collective  noun 
and  an  abstract.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  the  examples 
are  classified  according  to  the  parts  of  speech  of  the  two 
words  which  express  the  connection.  These  words  are 
italicized.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  examples  given  that 
the  two  words  need  not  be  built  on  the  same  root:  when 
they  are,  they  correspond  to  the  cases  of  actual  repetition; 
when  they  are  not,  they  correspond  rather  to  the  cases  in 
which  a  synonym  is  used.  Always,  it  is  the  meaning  which 
furnishes  the  basis  for  connection. 

A  noun  in  the  second  clause  may  repeat  the  element  of 
meaning  from  a  verb  in  the  first  or  vice  versa. 

Ann.  I.  44.  I :  Supplices  ad  haec  et  vera  exprobari  fatentes  ora- 
bant  puniret  noxios,  ignosceret  lapsis  et  duceret  in  hostem : 
revocaretur  coniunx,  rediret  legionum  alumnus  neve  opses  Gallis 
traderetur.  Rediium  Agrippinae  excusavit  etc.  Ann.  I.  52.  i : 
Nuntiata  ea  Tiberium  laetitia  curaque  adf ecere :  gaudebat  oppressam 
seditionem,  sed  quod  largiendis  pecuniis  et  missione  festinata 
favorem  militum  quaesivisset,  bellica  quoque  Germanici  gloria 
angebatur.  (In  this  example  angebatur  really  repeats  also  the  sense 
of  ctira  in  the  first  clause.  After  the  expression  laetitia  curaque, 
the  contrast  between  gaudebat  and  angebatur  could  not  have  failed 
to  be  clear,  but  Tacitus  makes  it  doubly  clear  by  adding  a  sed.) 
Ann.  XV.  5.  2:  misit  ad  Vologesen,  qui  expostularent  vim  pro- 
vinciae  inlatam :  socium  amicumque  regem,  cohortes  Romanas 
circumsideri.  Omitteret  potius  obsidionem,  aut  se  quoque  in  agro 
hostili  castra  positurum.     H.  I.  43.  12 :    Piso  in  f  oribus  templi  truci- 

datus  <est.>     Nullam  caedem  Otho  maiore  laetitia  excepisse 

dicitur  etc.  H.  II.  64.  4:  atque  ibi  interfici  iussit.  Longum  inter- 
fectori  visum,  etc.  H.  IV.  59.  7:  Nee  illi,  quamquam  ad  omne 
facinus  durato,  verba  ultra  suppeditavere,  quam  ut  sacrantenium 
recitaret :    iuravere  qui  aderant  pro   imperio  Galliarum.     G.  9.  3 : 


76         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

Pars  Sueborum  et  Isidi  sacrificat:  unde  causa  et  origo  peregrine 
sacro.  parum  comperi  etc.  G.  12.  7:  Equorum  pecorumque  numero 
convicti  muUantiir.  Pars  miiltae  regi  vel  civitati,  pars  ipsi,  qui 
vindicatur,  vel  propinquis  eius  exsolvitur.  G.  27.  6 :  Lamenta  ac 
lacrimas  cito,  dolorem  et  tristitiam  tarde  ponunt.  Feminis  lugere 
honestum  est,  viris  meminisse. 

A  noun  or  personal  pronoun  in  the  second  clause  may- 
repeat  an  element  of  meaning  from  an  adjective  or  a  pos- 
sessive pronoun  in  the  first,  and  z'ice  versa. 

Ann.  I.  18.  9 :  Mea  potius  caede  imbuite  manus :  leviore  flagitio 
legatum  interficietis  quam  ab  imperatore  desciscitis.  Ann.  XVI.  22. 
15:  Huic  uni  incolumitas  tua  sine  cura,  artes  sine  honore.  Pros- 
peras  principis  res  spernit:  etiamne  luctibus  et  doloribus  non 
satiatur?  H.  III.  50.  12:  Ad  has  copias  e  classicis  Ravennatibus, 
legionariam  militiam  poscentibus,  optimus  quisque  adsciti :  classem 
Delmatae  supplevere.  H.  IV.  74.  i :  Regna  bellaque  per  Gallias 
semper  fuere,  donee  in  nostrum  ius  concederetis.  Nos,  quamquam 
totiens  lacessiti,  iure  victoriae  id  solum  vobis  addidimus,  quo  pacem 
tueremur;  etc.  H.  V.  5.  15:  Corpora  condere  quam  cremare  e 
more  Aegypfio,  eademque  cura  et  de  infernis  persuasio,  caelestium 
contra.  Aegyptii  pleraque  animalia  effigiesque  compositas  veneran- 
tur,  ludaei  mente  sola  unumque  numen  intellegunt :  etc.  G.  39.  i  : 
Vetustissimos  nobilissimosque  Sueborum  Sennones  memorant; 
fides  antiquitatis  religione  firmatur. 

One  noun  in  the  second  clause  may  repeat  an  element  of 
meaning  from  another  noun  in  the  first  clause  v^ithout 
referring  to  the  same  person  or  thing.  The  second  noun 
may  be  the  name  of  a  people,  the  first  the  name  of  the 
country,  as  in  the  following: 

Ag.  13.  I,  after  a  discussion  of  the  country  Britannia:  Ipsi 
Brifaiuii  dilectum  ac  tributa  et  iniuncta  imperii  munia  impigre 
cbeunt,  si  iniuriae  absint;  etc.  G.  2.  i,  after  a  similar  discussion 
of  the  country  Germania:    Ipsos  Germanos  indiginas  crediderim  etc. 

The  second  noun  may  be  the  name  of  a  people  or  of  a 
country,  the  first  the  name  of  their  leader,  as  in  the  following 
examples : 

Ann.  II.  67.  6:  Accusatus  [sc.  Rhescuperis,  the  Thracian  king] 
in   senatu   ab   uxore    Cotyis    damnatur,   ut  procul   regno   teneretur. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         77 

Thracia  in  Rhoemetalcen  filium,  quem  paternis  consiliis  adversatum 
constabat,  inqiie  liberos  Cotyis  dividitur  etc.  Ann.  XIII.  54.  23 : 
Nero  civitate  Romana  ambos  [sc.  the  Frisian  ambassadors]  donavit, 
Frisios  decedere   agris   iussit.     H.   V.   15.   10:     Eius  proelii   eventus 

utrumque     ducem erexit.      Civilis    instare     f  ortunae,     Cerialis 

abolere  ignominiam :  Germani  prosperis  f  eroces,  Romanos  pudor 
excitaverat. 

The  noun  of  the  second  clause  may  be  the  name  of  an 
office,  that  of  the  first,  the  title  of  the  officer,  and  vice  versa, 
as  in  the  following  examples : 

H.   II.  45.   5:    Postera  die missa  legatio;    nee   apud   duces 

Vitellianos  dubitatum,  quo  minus  pacem  concederent.  Legati 
paulisper  retenti  etc.  H.  III.  45.  13 :  Et  cohortes  alaeque  nostrae 
variis  proeliis,  exemere  tamen  periculo  reginam;  regnuin  Venutio, 
bellum  nobis  relictum. 

Far  more  frequent  than  the  cases  of  the  last  three  types, 
which  are  rare,  are  those  in  which  the  two  nouns  are  names 
of  persons  or  things  belonging  to  some  common  and  obvious 
category,  as,  for  example,  military  terms,  or  names  of  philo- 
sophical sects.  A  similar  usage  will  be  found  very  common 
among  the  cases  of  connection  by  contrast,  but  in  the  present 
examples  there  is  no  contrast :  the  two  nouns  are  related 
solely  by  their  association  in  a  common  category.  The 
usage  is  not  very  different  from  that  in  which  all  the 
sentence  connection  lies  in  the  unity  of  subject  matter ; 
only  in  the  present  instances  this  unity  is  to  such  an  extent 
expressed  in  single  words  as  to  somewhat  change  the 
nature  of  the  connections.    The  following  are  examples : 

Ann.  II.  6.  2 :  Silius  et  Anteius  et  Caecina  f abricandae  classi  prae- 
ponuntur.  Mille  naves  sufificere  visae  properataeque  etc.  Ann.  III. 
20.  4:  postremo  baud  procul  Pagyda  flumine  cohortem  Romanam 
circumsedit.  Praeerat  castello  Decius  impiger  manu,  exercitus 
militia  et  illam  obsidionem  flagitii  ratus.  Ann.  V.  i.  14:  Funus 
eius  modicum,  testamentum  diu  inritum  fuit.  Laudata  est  pro 
rostris  a  Gaio  Caesare  pronepote,  qui  mox  rerum  potitus  est.  (In 
this  case  the  terms  funus  and  testamentum  are  words  which  would 
occur  in  any  account  of  funeral  ceremonies.     The  laudatio  funebris 


78         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

is  another  such  term,  and  the  expression  laudata  est  pro  rostris 
has  exactly  the  same  effect,  as  far  as  sentence  connection  is  con- 
cerned, that  the  use  of  the  noun  would  have  had.)  Ann.  XV.  3.  9: 
Et  quia  egena  aquarum  regio  est.  castella  fontibus  inposita;  quos- 
dam  rivos  congestu  harenae  abdidit.  H.  II.  95.  3 :  Laetum 
foedissimo  cuique  apud  bonos  invidiae  fuit,  quod  exstructis  in 
campo  Martio  aris  inferias  Neroni  fecisset.  Caesae  publice  victimae 
cremataeque  etc.  H.  III.  79.  9:  Neque  omnis  eques  concors, 
adiunctis  quibusdam,  qui  nuper  apud  Narniam  dediti  fortunam 
partium  speculabantur.  Capitur  praefectus  alae  lulianus  Flavianus 
etc.  Ag.  12.  I :  quaedam  nationes  et  curru  proeliantur.  Honestior 
auriga,  clientes  propugnant.  G.  23.  i :  Potui  humor  ex  hordeo  aut 
f  rumento  in  quandam  similitudinem  vini  corruptus :  proximi  ripae 
et  vinum  mercantur.  Cibi  simplices,  agrestia  poma,  recens  fera,  aut 
lac  concretum  etc.  D.  31.  24:  Alios  fusa  et  aequalis  et  ex  communi- 
bus  ducta  sensibus  oratio  magis  delectat:  ad  hos  permovendos 
mutabimur  a  Peripateticis  aptos  et  in  omnem  disputationem  paratos 
iam  locos.  Dabunt  Academici  pugnacitatem,  Plato  altitudinem, 
Xenophon  iucunditatem  etc. 

b.  In  the  cases  assembled  in  the  last  section  the  element  of 
meaning  was  always  drawn  from  a  single  word  and  repeated 
in  a  single  word.  There  are  also  cases  in  which  the  idea 
repeated  is  taken  from  the  general  meaning  of  the  sentence 
and  is  summed  up  in  a  single  word  in  the  following  sentence. 
This  is  a  very  common  usage  in  Tacitus :  usually  the  word 
in  which  lies  the  repetition  expresses  nominally  the  idea 
expressed  by  the  whole  first  sentence'  and  consequently  such 
words  are  most  frequently  abstract  nouns.  The  distinction 
between  this  class  and  the  last  is  not  great ;  it  is  a  question 
of  whether  the  element  of  meaning  repeated  can  be  definitely 
located  in  a  single  word — as  if,  for  instance,  timnit  were 
used  in  one  sentence  and  timor  in  the  next — or  must  be 
sought  in  the  general  effect  produced  by  the  whole  of  a 
sentence — as  if,  for  instance,  the  timer  in  the  second  sen- 
tence referred  to  a  description  in  the  first  of  confusion  due 
to  fear.  Such  abstract  nouns  of  feeling  occur  most  fre- 
quently in  this  usage.  For  example,  H.  II.  54.  7 :  Et 
Coenus  quidem  raptim  in  urbem  vectus  paucos  post  dies 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         79 

iussu  Vitellii  poenas  luit :  senatorum  periculum  auctum  cre- 
dentibus  Othonianis  militibus  vera  esse  quae  adferebantur. 
Intendebat  formidinem,  quod  public!  consilii  facie  discessum 
Mutina  desertaeque  partes  forent.  There  is  no  word  in  the 
first  sentence  to  which  the  formidinem  can  specifically  refer. 
Periculum  is  the  nearest  approach  to  such  a  word  but  only 
in  its  connotation,  not  in  its  exact  meaning.  There  is,  how- 
ever, conveyed  by  the  first  sentence  a  distinct  impression  of 
fear  and  this  is  gathered  up  and  concretely  expressed  in 
the  formidinem  which  thus  virtually  repeats  an  element  of 
meaning  from  the  preceding  sentence.  Further  examples 
are: 

Ann.  I.  49.  12 :  Truces  etiam  animos  cupido  involat  eundi  in 
hostem,  piaculum  f  uroris ;  nee  aliter  posse  placari  commilitonum 
manes,  quam  si  pectoribus  impiis  honesta  vulnera  accepissent. 
Sequitur  ardorem  militum  Caesar  iunctoque  ponte  tramittit  duo- 
decim  milia  e  legionibus  etc.  H.  IV.  40.  12 :  Repeti  inde  cogni- 
tionem  inter  Musonium  Rufum  et  Publium  Celerem  placuit, 
damnatusque  Publius  et  Sorani  manibus  satis  factum.  Insignis 
publica  severitate  dies  ne  privatim  quidem  laude  caruit.  H.  III.  10. 
17:  Ubi  crudescere  seditio  et  a  conviciis  ac  probris  ad  tela  et  manus 
transibant,  inici  catenas  Flaviano  iubet.  Sensit  ludibrium  miles, 
disiectisque  qui  tribunal  tuebantur  extrema  vis  parabatur.  H.  I. 
82.  17 :  Atque  ilium  tribuni  centurionesque  circumsistunt,  abiectis 
militiae  insignibus  otium  et  salutem  flagitantes.  Sensit  invidium 
miles  et  compositus  in  obsequium  auctores  seditionis  ad  supplicium 
ultro  postulabat. 

This  use  is  very  common  with  the  verb  augeo  as  the  main 
verb  of  the  second  clause  with  the  abstract  noun  as  its  object. 
For  example : 

H.  II.  13.  2:  Quippe  in  acie  nihil  praedae,  inopes  agrestes  et  vilia 
anna ;  nee  capi  poterant,  pervix  gens  et  gnari  locorum :  sed 
calamitatibus  insontium  expleta  avaritia.  Auxit  invidiam  praeclaro 
exemplo  femina  Ligus.  H.  V.  10.  9:  Pace  per  Italiam  parta  et 
externae  eurae  rediere :  augebat  iras,  quod  soli  ludaei  non  eessissent 
etc.  Ann.  I.  36.  i:  Consultatum  ibi  de  remedio;  etenim  nuntiabatur 
parari  legates,  qui  superiorem  exercitum  ad  causam  eandem  tra- 
herent:    destinatum  excidio  Ubiorum  oppidum,  imbutasque  praeda 


8o         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

manus  in  direptionem  Galliarum  erepturas.  Augebat  metum  gnarus 
Romanae  seditionis  et,  si  omitteretur  ripa,  invasurus  hostis  etc. 

Other  abstract  nouns  than  those  of  feeling  are  often  used 
in  the  same  way.     Examples  are: 

Ann.   IV.  27.    I :    Eadem  aestate  mota  per  Italiam   servilis  belli 

semina     fors    oppressit.       Auctor    tumultus    T.     Curtisius ad 

libertatem  vocabat  agrestia  etc.  Ann.  IV.  43.  15:  Et  Segestani 
aedem  Veneris  montem  apud  Erycum,  vetustate  dilapsum,  restaurari 
postulavere,  nota  memorantes  de  origine  eius  et  laeta  Tiberio. 
Suscepit  curam  libens  ut  consanguineus.  Ann.  VI.  45.  2:  quod 
damnum  Caesar  ad  gloriam  vertit  exsolutis  domuum  et  insularum 
pretiis.  Milieus  sestertium  in  munificentia  <  ea  >  conlocatam  etc. 
(This  case  is  interesting  because  of  the  ea  added  by  Otto.  With 
the  similar  cases  in  mind,  no  necessity  for  the  ea  is  felt.)  Ann. 
XVI.  23.  6:  Sed  crimini  dabatur  amicitia  Plauti  et  ambitio  con- 
ciliandae  provinciae  ad  spes  novas.  Tempus  damnationi  delectum, 
quo  Tiridates  accipiendo  Armeniae  regno  adventabat  etc.  H.  II. 
I.  7:  Materia  sermonibus  senium  et  orbitas  principis  et  intemper- 
antia  civitatis,  donee  unus  eHgatur,  multos  destinandi.  Augebat 
f  amam  ipsius  Titi  ingenium  etc.  H.  III.  12.  3 :  Lucilius  Bassus 
classis  Ravennatis  praefectus  ambiguos  militum  animos,  quod 
magna  pars  Delmatae  Pannoniique  erant,  quae  provinciae  Ves- 
pasiano  tenebantur,  partibus  eius  adgregaverat.  Nox  proditioni 
electa,  ut  ceteris  ignaris  soli  in  principia  defectores  coirent.  G.  14. 
13 :  nam  epulae  et  quamquam  incompti,  largi  tamen  apparatus  pro 
stipendio  cedunt.  Materia  munificentiae  per  bella  et  raptus.  G.  45. 
8 :  Matrem  deum  venerantur.  Insigne  superstitionis  f  ormas  aprorum 
gestant  etc. 

Another  group  of  words  occurring  frequently  in  this  use 
is  made  up  of  nouns  denoting  action,  of  participles  used 
substantively  but  with  strong  verbal  force,  and  of  gerunds. 
A  great  many  such  examples  occur  with  causa  and  these  will 
be  treated  as  special  cases  below.  Examples  with  other  con- 
structions are : 

Ann.  II.  31.  7:  feralibus  iam  sibi  tenebris  duos  ictus  in  viscera 
derexit.     Ad  gemitum   conlabentis   adcurrere   liberti,   et   caede  visa 

miles    abstitit.      Ann.    XII.    50.    i:     Nam    Vologeses contrahit 

copias    fratremque   Tiridatem    deducere    in    regnum    parat,    ne    qua 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         8i 

pars  domus  sine  imperio  ageret.  Incessu  Parthorum  sine  acie  pulsi 
Hiberi,  urbesque  Armeniorum  Artaxata  et  Tigranocerta  iugum 
accepere.  H.  II.  49.  11:  luce  prima  in  ferrum  pectore  incubuit. 
Ad  gemitiim  morientis  ingressi  liberti  servique  et  Plotius  Firmus 
praetorii  praefectus  unum  vulnus  invenere.  H.  11.  52.  9:  Ita  trepidi 
et  utrimque  anxii  coeunt,  nemo  privatim  expedite  consilio,  inter 
multos  societate  culpae  tutior.  Onerabat  paventium  curas  ordo 
Mutinensis  arma  pecuniam  ofiferendo  etc.  H.  III.  8.  3 :  simul 
coloniam  copiis  validam  auferre  Vitellio  in  rem  famamque  vide- 
batur.  Possessa  ipso  transitu  Vicetia ;  etc.  H.  IV.  2.  10 :  Nee 
cunctatus  est  Vitellius  seque  et  cohortes  arbitrio  victoris  permittere, 
et  miles  infelicia  arma  baud  minus  ira  quam  metu  abiecit.  Longus 
deditorum  ordo  saeptus  armatis  per  urbem  incessit  etc. 

There  is  one  case  in  which  the  colorless  word  res  is  used 
in  the  second  sentence  standing  for  the  entire  fact  stated  in 
the  first.  H.  III.  25.  9 :  Eo  notabilior  caedes  fuit,  quia  filius 
patrem  interfecit.  Rem  nominaque  auctore  Vipstano  Mes- 
salla  tradam.  This  is  more  common  in  English,  as,  for 
example  in  Genesis  21.  11,  when  God  has  told  Abraham  to 
cast  out  the  bondwoman:  "And  the  thing  was  very 
grievous  in  Abraham's  sight,  because  of  his  son."  Not  very 
different  is  the  use  of  opus  in  two  sentences  in  Tacitus : 
Ann.  XII.  57.  I :  Sed  perfecto  spectaculo  apertum  aquarum 
iter.  Incuria  operis  manifesta  fuit,  baud  satis  depressi  ad 
lacus  ima  vel  media.  Ann.  XIII.  53.  12,  following  an 
account  of  the  attempt  to  continue  Drusus'  canal  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rhine :  Invidit  operi  Aelius  Gracilis  Belgicae 
legatus,  deterrendo  Veterem  etc.  The  latter  is  the  better 
case  for  in  the  first  the  operis  refers  pretty  directly  to  the 
iter. 

Two  special  uses  should  be  noted  before  leaving  this  type 
of  repetition.  They  do  not  form  separate  subdivisions,  for 
the  cases  comprising  them  fall  under  the  groups  already 
noted.  The  first  is  the  use  of  a  superlative  with  the  word 
in  the  second  sentence  which  contains  the  element  of  repe- 
tition, the  second  the  use  of  causa  with  this  summary  word. 
Examples  of  the  first  use  are : 


82         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

Ann.  I.  65.  17:  lUi  sanguine  suo  et  lubrico  paludum  lapsantes 
excussis  rectoribus  disicere  obvios,  proterere  iacentes.  Plurimus 
circa  aqutlas  labor,  etc.  H.  IV.  85.  i :  At  Domitianus  Mucianusque 
antequam  Alpibus  propinquarent,  prosperos  rerum  in  Treveris 
gestarum  nuntios  accepere.  Praecipua  victoriae  fides  dux  hostium 
Valentinus  nequaquam  abiecto  animo,  quos  spiritus  gessisset,  vultu 
ferebat.  H.  IV.  11.  7:  Nee  deerat  ipse,  stipatus  armatis  domos 
hortosque  permutans,  apparatu  incessu  excubiis  vim  principis 
amplecti,  nomen  remittere.  Plurimum  terroris  intulit  caedes  Cal- 
purnii  Galeriani.  Ann.  11.  47.  5 :  Sedisse  immensos  montes,  visa 
in  arduo  quae  plana  fuerint,  effulsisse  inter  ruinam  ignes  memorant. 
Asperrima  in  Sardinios  lues  plurimum  in  eosdem  misericordiae 
traxit :    etc. 

Examples  of  the  use  with  causa  are : 

Ann.  XVI.  15.  2 :    Eo  missus  centurio,  qui  caedem  eius  maturaret. 

Causa  festinandi  ex  eo  oriebatur  quod  Ostorius metum  Neroni 

fecerat  ne  invaderet  pavidum  semper  et  repenta  nuper  coniuratione 
magis  exterritum.  H.  II.  54.  2 :  cum  repente  Coenus  libertus 
Neronis  atroci  mendacio  universes  perculit,  adfirmans  superventu 
quartae  decumae  legionis,  iunctis  a  Brixello  viribus,  caesos  victores ; 
versam  partium  fortunam.  Causa  fingendi  fuit,  ut  diplomata 
Othonis,   quae  neglegebantur   laetiore  nuntio  revalescerent.     H.   V. 

23.    I :     Civilem    cupido    incessit    navalem    aciem    ostentandi 

Spatium  velut  aequoris  electum  quo  Mosae  fluminis  os  amnem 
Rhenum  Oceano  adfundit.  Causa  instruendae  classis  super  insitam 
genti  vanitatem,  ut  eo  terrore  commeatus  Gallia  adventantes  inter- 
ciperentur.  H.  III.  78.  i :  Dum  haec  in  partibus  Vitellii  geruntur, 
digressus  Narnia  Vespasiani  exercitus  festos  Saturni  dies  Ocriculi 
per    otium    agitabat.     Causa    tarn    pravae    morae,    ut    Mucianum 

opperirentur.      H.     III.    38.     11:      lUe cubiculum     imperatoris 

reserat,  filium  eius  sinu  complexus  et  genibus  accidens.  Causam 
confusionis  quaerenti,  non  se  proprio  metu  nee  sui  anxium,  sed  pro 
fratre,  pro  liberis  fratris  preces  lacrimasque  attulisse.  Ag.  41.  i  : 
Crebro  per  eos  dies  apud  Domitianum  absens  accusatus,  absens 
absolutus  est.  Causa  periculi  non  crimen  ullum  aut  querela  laesi 
cuiusquam,  sed  infensus  virtutibus  princeps  et  gloria  viri  ac, 
pessimum  inimicorum  genus,  laudantes. 

The  cases  in  which  causa  is  used  alone,  with  a  genitive 
like  these  understood,  will  be  taken  up  later  in  the  chapter; 
they  are  made  clear  by  comparison  with  the  present 
examples. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         83 

c.  There  are  more  than  a  hundred  instances  in  Tacitus 
in  which  some  word  in  the  second  sentence  repeats  only  a 
part  of  some  noun  or  noun  equivalent  in  the  first.  In  the 
majority  of  these  the  element  of  repetition  is  to  be  found 
in  some  word  which  specifically  expresses  the  partitive  idea 
by  its  meaning  as,  for  example,  pars,  quidani  or  multi. 
Very  frequently  these  are  found  in  pairs  or  else  in  a  series, 

like  alii alii,  or  multi plurcs aUi.     The  same 

repetition  of  a  part  of  some  noun  from  the  first  sentence  is, 
however,  frequently  expressed  by  a  descriptive  relative 
clause,  or  an  adjective  or  even  a  noun.  The  special  words 
used  in  this  way  are  listed  by  Kiihner  with  the  copulative 
conjunctions  ;  by  Lane  they  are  designated  as  "other  words" 
denoting  connection.  It  is  convenient  to  illustrate  them 
according  to  the  various  words  used. 

Pars.  The  easiest  word  to  understand  in  this  usage  but 
one  which  occurs  only  three  or  four  times  without  a  partitive 
genitive  which  in  itself  repeats  an  element  of  meaning  from 
the  preceding  sentence,  is  pars.  A  few  illustrations  of  its 
use  with  a  partitive  genitive  or  its  equivalent  will  make  all 
the  cases  of  the  present  group  much  clearer.  For  example, 
G.  12.  6:  Sed  et  levioribus  delictis  pro  modo  poena: 
equorum  pecorumque  numero  convicti  multantur.  Pars 
multae  regi  vel  civitati,  pars  ipsi  qui  vindicatur,  vel  propin- 
quis  eius  exsolvitur.  The  multae  is  virtually  a  repetition 
from  multantur  but  the  connection  would  be  scarcely  less 
clear  without  it.  There  is  a  question  whether  if  the  multae 
were  omitted  the  connection  would  really  lie  in  the  meaning 
of  pars  or  in  the  understanding  of  a  partitive  genitive ;  but 
on  the  whole  the  meaning  of  pars  seems  to  be  sufficiently 
defined  and,  in  itself,  incomplete  to  make  the  connection. 
Two  further  cases  are:  Ann.  II.  15.  3:  hos  esse  Romanes 
Variani  exercitus  fugacissimos,  qui  ne  bellum  tolerarent, 
seditionem  induerint ;  quorum  pars  onusta  vulneribus 
terga,  pars  fluctibus  et  procellis  fractos  artus  infensis  rur- 
sum  hostibus,  adversis  dis  obiciant,  nulla  boni  spe.     H.  II. 


84         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

14.  3 :  Duas  Tungrorum  cohortes,  quattuor  equitum  tur- 
mas,  universam  Treverorum  alam  cum  lulio  Classico 
praefecto  misit,  e  quibus  pars  in  colonia  Foroiuliensi  retenta, 
ne  omnibus  copiis  in  terrestre  iter  versis  vacuo  mari  classis 
adceleraret. 

From  such  cases  as  the  foregoing  the  ones  with  pars  alone 
are  clear: 

Ann.  III.  38.  15 :  Coelatae  Odrusaeque  et  Dii,  validae  nationes, 
arma  cepere,  ducibus  diversis  et  paribus  inter  se  per  ignobilitatem ; 
quae  causa  fuit  ne  in  bellum  atrox  coalescerent.  Pars  turbant 
praesentia,  alii  montem  Haemum  transgrediuntur,  etc.  H.  III. 
63.  5 :  et  circumdatos  Primus  Antonius  clementer  adloquitur :  pars 
Narniae,  pars  Interamnae  subsistere  iussi.  H.  IV.  8.  21 :  Haec 
magnis  utrimque  contentionibus  iactata  diversis  studiis  accipieban- 
tur.  Vicit  pars,  quae  sortiri  legates  malebat,  etc.  Ann.  I.  4.  6: 
pauci  bona  libertatis  in  cassum  disserere,  plures  bellum  pavescere. 
alii  cupere.  Pars  multo  maxima  inminentis  dominos  variis 
sermonibus  differebant  etc. 

MuLTi.  It  is  true  of  multi  as  of  pars  and  of  almost  all 
the  following  words,  that  they  are  very  often  used  in  an 
entirely  different  way  from  that  under  discussion.  The 
object  in  the  present  paragraph  is  to  show  their  use  in  this 
particular  partitive  sense. 

Ann.  II.  24.  14:  Collecti  ea  cura  plerique :  multos  Ampsivarii 
nuper  in  fidem  accepti  redemptos  ab  interioribus  redidere;  quidam 
in  Britanniam  rapti  et  remissi  a  regulis.  Ann.  XIII.  35.  11: 
Retentusque  omnis  exercitus  sub  pellibus,  quamvis  hieme  saeva 
adeo,  ut  obducta  glacie  nisi  effossa  humus  tentoriis  locum  non  prae- 
beret.  Ambusti  multorum  artus  vi  frigoris  et  quidam  inter  excubias 
exanimati  sunt.  H.  I.  19.  2 :  Et  patrum  favor  aderat ;  multi,  volun- 
tate,  effusius  qui  noluerant,  medii  ac  plurimi  obvio  obsequio,  privatas 
spes  agitantes  sine  publica  cura.  H.  II.  82.  5 :  Ipse  Vespasianus 
adire,  hortari,  bonos  laude,  segnes  exemplo  incitare  saepius  quam 
coercere,  vitia  magis  amicorum  quam  virtutes  dissimulans.  Multos 
praefecturis  et  procurationibus,   plerosque  senatorii  ordinis   honore 

percoluit ;     quibusdam    fortuna   pro   virtutibus    fuit.     H.    IV. 

29.  13 :  Ubi  sonus  molientium  aut  adpositae  scalae  hostem  in  manus 
dederant,  propellere  umbone,  pilo  sequi;  multos  in  moenia  egressos 
pugionibus  fodere. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         85 

Plures.  This  word,  being  a  comparative,  has  a  con- 
necting element  which  the  preceding  words  have  not  had, 
for  comparatives  are  incomplete  in  meaning  by  their  nature 
and  necessarily  have  reference  to  some  other  word.  This 
also  explains  why  plures  must  regularly  come  in  some  such 
series  as  qiiidam plures alii.    Examples  are : 

Ann.  II.  23.  I  :  Sed  aestate  iam  adulta  legionum  aliae  itinera 
terrestri  in  hibernacula  remissere :  plures  Caesar  classi  inpositas 
per  flumen  Amisiam  Oceano  invexit.  Ann.  IV.  2>2>-  9'-  quia  pauci 
prudentia  honesta  ab  deterioribus,  utilia  ab  noxiis  discernunt,  plures 
aliorum  eventis  docentur.  Ann.  XIV.  51.  2 :  concessitque  vita 
Burrus,  incertum  valetudine  an  veneno.  Valetudo  ex  eo  coniecta- 
batur,  quod  in  se  tumescentibus  paulatim  faucibus  et  impedito  meatu 
spiritum  finiebat.  Plures  iussu  Neronis,  quasi  remedium  adhibere- 
tur,  inlitum  palatum,  eius  noxio  medicamine  adseverabant  etc.  H.  I. 
28.  5  :  isque  habitus  animorum  fuit,  ut  pessimum  facinus  auderent 
pauci,  plures  vellent,  omnes  paterentur.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
these  cases  belong  in  the  present  category :  except  for  the  first, 
there  is  much  more  contrast  than  repetition  of  any  part  of  a  pre- 
ceding word,  expressed  or  unexpressed. 

Alius.  Only  the  cases  of  alius,  partitive,  are  considered 
here;  that  is,  the  cases  in  which  it  is  correlative  with  another 
alius,  or  with  some  similar  v/ord.  The  use  of  alius  alone 
does  not  come  under  the  head  of  repetition  but  rather  of 
words  incomplete  in  their  meaning. 

Ann.    I.    14.    I :     Multa    patrum    et    in    Augustam    adulatio :     alii 

parentem,  alii  matrem  patriae  appellandam censebant.     H.  IV. 

17.  26:  proinde  arriperent  vacui  occupatos,  integri  fessos.  Dum  alii 
Vespasianum,  alii  Vitellium  foveant,  patere  locum  adversus 
utrumque.  Ann.  I.  76.  11  :  Cur  abstinuerit  spectaculo  ipse,  varie 
trahebant;  ahi  taedio  coetus,  quidam  tristitia  ingenii  et  metu  con- 
parationis,  quia  Augustus  comiter  interf uisset.  Ann.  XIV.  8.  2 :  Hi 
molium  obiectus,  hi  proximas  scaphas  scandere;  alii,  quantum 
corpus  sinebat,  vadere  in  mare ;   quidam  manus  protendere ;    etc. 

Quidam.  This  is  the  word  most  frequently  used  in 
this  sort  of  repetition. 

Ann.  XV.  38.  20:  Postremo,  quid  vitarent  quid  peterent  ambigui, 
complere   vias,    sterni   per    agros;     quidam    amissis    omnibus    for- 


86         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

tunis quamvis    patente    effugio    interiere.      Ann.    IV.    51.    i: 

Interea  barbari  catervis  decurrentes  nunc  in  vallum  manualia  saxa, 
praeustas  sudes,  decisa  robora,  iacere,  nunc  virgultis  et  cratibus  et 
corporibus  exanimis  complere  fossas,  quidam  pontis  et  scalas  ante 
fabricati  inferre  propugnaculis,  eaque  prensare  detrahere  et 
adversum  resistentia  comminus  niti.  Ann.  III.  46.  13 :  sed  miles 
correptis  securibus  et  dolabris,  ut  si  murum  perrumperet,  caedere 
tegmina  et  corpora;  quidam  trudibus  aut  furcis  inertem  molem 
prosternere  etc.  H.  I.  26.  10:  Multa  erumpentis  seditionis  indicia 
per  conscios  oppressa :  quaedam  apud  Galbae  aures  praef ectus  Laco 
elusit  etc.  Ann.  III.  69.  8:  Multos  in  provinciis  contra,  quam  spes 
aut  metus  de  illis  f uerit,  egisse :  exercitari  quosdam  ad  meliora 
magnitudine  rerum,  hebescere  alios.  Ann.  II.  83.  17:  Pleraque 
manent :  quaedam  statim  omissa  sunt  aut  vetustas  oblitteravit. 
Ag.  37.  11:  lam  hostium,  prout  cuique  ingenium  erat,  catervae 
armatorum  paucioribus  terga  praestare,  quidam  inermes  ultro  ruere 
ac  se  morti  offerre.  G.  2.  12 :  Manno  tris  filios  adsignant,  e  quorum 
nominibus  proximi  Oceano  Ingaevones,  medii  Herminones,  ceteri 
Istaevones  vocentur.  Quidam,  ut  in  licentia  vetustatis,  pluris  dec 
ortos  plurisque  gentis  appellationes,  Marsos  Gambrivios  Suebos 
Vandilios  adfirmant  etc.  In  nearly  all  of  these  examples  of  quidam 
the  element  of  contrast  is  very  strong.  Especially  in  the  case  of 
Ag.  27-  II.  the  contrast  is  more  prominent  than  the  repetition: 
catervae  emphasizes  the  large  numbers  in  the  groups  which  run 
away  from  a  few  opponents ;  quidam  contrasts  with  this  the  indi- 
viduals who  plunge  to  death  into  the  enemies'  ranks. 

Plerique.  a  danger  in  citing  cases  of  plcrique  is  the 
inclusion  of  those  in  which  it  does  not  repeat  any  part  of 
what  has  preceded  but  begins  a  new  idea  aUogether.  Most 
of  these  latter  instances  are  cases  of  tradunt  plerique  and 
the  like.  The  cases  of  plerique,  repeating  some  element  of 
meaning,  are  fairly  numerous : 

H.  IV.  56.  I :  Haec  dicta  pariter  probataque :  de  reliquiis 
Vitelliani  exercitus  dubitavere.  Plerique  interficiendos  censebant, 
turbidos,  infectos,  sanguine  ducum  pollutos :  etc.  H.  II.  39.  9:  Ibi 
de  proelio  dubitatum,  Othone  per  litteras  flagitante  ut  maturarent, 
militibus  ut  imperator  pugnae  adesset  poscentibus :  plerique  copias 
trans  Padum  agentes  acciri  postulabant.  After  a  chapter  on  the 
honors  given  to  Germanicus — Ann.  II.  83 — comes  the  following  in 
line  17:   Pleraque  manent;  quaedam  statim  omissa  sunt  aut  vetustas 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         87 

oblitteravit.  H.  I.  39.  4:  cum  alii  in  Palatium  rediret,  alii  Capi- 
tolium  peteret,  plerique  rostra  occupanda  censerent,  plures  tantiim 
sententiis  aliorum  contra  dicerent  etc. 

Pauci.     Examples  of  panel  are : 

H.  III.  80.  i:  Eo  sucessu  studia  populi  ducta;  vulgus  urbanum 
arma  cepit.  Paucis  scuta  militaria,  plures  raptis  quod  cuique 
obvium  telis  signum  pugnae  exposcunt.  H.  IV.  2.  12:  Longus 
deditorum  ordo  saeptus  armatis  per  urbem  incessit,  nemo  supplici 
vultu,  sed  tristes  et  truces  et  adversum  plausus  ac  lasciviam  insul- 
tantis  vulgi  inmobiles.  Paucos  erumpere  ausos  circumiecti  oppres- 
sere;  etc.  Ann.  I.  21.  i:  Horum  adventu  redintegratur  seditio  et 
vagi  circumiecta  populabantur.  Blaesus  paucos,  maxime  praeda 
onustos,  ad  terrorem  ceterorum  adfici  verberibus,  claudi  carcere 
iubet;   etc. 

QuisouE  with  a  superlative  furnishes  numerous  cases 
of  this  partitive  repetition,  singling  out  a  group  from  some 
body  mentioned  in  the  first  sentence. 

Ann.  III.  44.  I :  At  Romae  non  Treveros  modo  et  Aeduos,  sed 
quattuor  et  sexaginta  Galliarum  civitates  descivisse,  adsumptos  in 
societatem  Germanos,  dubias  Hispanias,  ut  mos  famae,  in  maius 
credita.  Optumus  quisque  rei  publicae  cura  maerebat  etc.  H.  IV. 
60.  11:  Ad  quintum  fere  lapidem  coorti  Germani  incautum  agmen 
adgrediuntur.  Pugnacissimus  quisque  in  vestigio,  multi  palantes 
occubuere,  etc.  H.  III.  55.  11  :  Sed  vulgus  ad  magnitudinem  bene- 
ficiorum  aderat,  stultissimus  quisque  pecuniis  mercabatur,  apud 
sapientes  cassa  habebantur,  quae  neque  dari  neque  accipi  salva  re 
publica  poterant. 

The  Demonstrative  Pronouns  may  be  used  in  the  same 
way. 

Ann.  XIV.  8.  i :  Interim  vulgato  Agrippinae  periculo,  quasi  casu 
evenisset,  ut  quisque  acceperat,  decurrere  ad  litus.  Hi  molium 
obiectus,  hi  proximas  scaphas  scandere;  etc.  Ann.  I.  9.  8:  At 
apud  prudentes  vita  eius  varie  extollebatur  arguebaturve.  Hi 
pietate  erga  parentem ad  arma  civilia  actum  etc. 

A  Descriptive  Relative  Clause  sometimes  stands  for  a 
noun  repeating  part  of  another  noun  or  noun  equivalent  in 


88         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

the  first  sentence.  This  is  not  an  altogether  good  division  of 
the  present  section,  for  there  is  ahiiost  always  some  other 
element  of  connection,  but  there  are  a  few  good  cases. 

H.  II.  46.  6:  Neque  erat  adulatio:  ire  in  aciem,  excitare  partium 
fortunam  furore  quodam  et  instinctu  flagrabant.  Qui  procul 
adstiterant,  tendere  manus,  et  proximi  prensare  genua,  promptissimo 
Plotio  Firmo.  Ann.  II.  20.  3 :  Seio  Tuberoni  legato  tradit  equitem 
campumque ;  peditum  aciem  ita  instruxit  ut  pars  aequo  in  silvam 
aditu  incederet,  pars  obiectum  aggerem  eniteretur;  quod  arduum 
sibi,  cetera  legatis  permisit.  Quibus  plana  evenerant,  facile 
inrupere,  quis  inpugnandus  agger,  ut  si  murum  succederent,  gravi- 
bus  superne  ictibus  conflictabantur.  (The  use  of  words  in  the 
second  sentence  actually  or  virtually  repeating  others  from  the  first 
is  a  prominent  factor  in  expressing  the  connection  in  this  case.) 
H.  III.  I.  3:  Illic  agitavere,  placeretne  obstrui  Pannoniae  Alpes, 
donee  a  tergo  vires  universae  consurgerent,  an  ire  comminus  et 
certare  pro  Italia  constantius  foret.  Quibus  opperiri  auxilia  et 
trahere  bellum  videbatur,  Germanicarum  legionum  vim  famamque 
extollebant,  etc.  (In  this  case  again  an  element  of  meaning  from 
the  first  sentence  is  virtually  repeated  in  a  word — opperire — of  the 
second.) 

With  these  cases  of  descriptive  relative  clauses  belong  the 
cases  in  which  sunt  qui  and  similar  phrases  are  used  to 
denote  a  division  of  some  group  already  mentioned  or 
implied.  These  cases  are  rare  because  it  is  usually  contrast 
that  is  expressed  in  such  phrases  and  not  repetition.  The 
following,  however,  illustrate  the  usage: 

Ann.  I.  35.  10 :  neu  mortem  in  isdem  laboribus,  sed  finem  tarn 
exercitae  militiae  neque  inopem  requiem  orabant.  Fuere  etiam 
qui  legatam  a  divo  Augusto  pecuniam  reposcerent  etc.  Ag.  26.  12 : 
Atque  ita  circumvecti  Britanniam,  amissis  per  inscitiam  regendi 
navibus,  pro  praedonibus  habiti,  primum  a  Suebis,  mox  a  Frisiis 
intercepti  sunt.  Ac  fuere  quos  per  commercia  venumdatos  et  in 
nostram  usque  ripam  mutatione  ementium  adductos  indicium  tanti 
casus  inlustravit. 


An  Adjective,  usually  but  not  necessarily  in  the  compar- 
ative or  superlative,  may  single  out  a  part  of  some  group 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         89 

indicated  in  the  first  sentence,  in  precisely  the  same  way  as 
the  relative  clause. 

H.  IV.  67.   i:    Interea  lulius  Sabinus turbam  in   Sequanos 

rapit,  conterminam  civitatem  et  nobis  fidam;  nee  Sequani  detracta- 
vere  certamen.  Fortuna  melioribus  adfuit:  fusi  Lingones.  H.  IV. 
35.  2:  Inpedimenta  legionum  cum  inbelli  turba  Novaesium  missa, 
ut  inde  terrestri  itinere  frumentum  adveherent;  nam  flumine  hostes 
potiebantur.  Primum  agmen  securum  incessit,  nondum  satis  firmo 
Civile.  H.  III.  16.  12 :  Pavidus  interim  Varus  turbae  suorum 
miscetur  intulitque  formidinem.  Pulsi  cum  sauciis  integri  suomet 
ipsi  metu  et  angustiis  viarum  conflictabantur.  G.  43.  10:  Ex  quibus 
latissime  patet  Lugiorum  nomen  in  plures  civitates  diflfusum. 
Valentissimas  nominasse  sufficiet,  Harios,  Helveconas,  Manimos, 
Elisios,  Nahanarvalos. 

Finally,  there  are  a  few  cases  in  which  the  repetition  of 
a  part  of  some  noun  or  noun  equivalent  is  accomplished  in 
A  SIMPLE  NOUN.  This  is  a  rare  usage,  for  nouns  that  repeat 
at  all,  usually  either  actually  or  virtually  repeat  an  entire 
element  of  meaning. 

Ann.  IV.  73.  14:  Cethego  Labeoni  legato  quintae  legionis  quod 
reliquum  auxiliorum  tradit.  Atque  ille  dubia  suorum  re  in  anceps 
tractus  missis  nuntiis  vim  legionum  inplorabat.  Prorumpunt  quin- 
tani  ante  alios  et  acri  pugna  hoste  pulso  recipiunt  cohortis  alasque 
fessas  vulneribus.  H.  II.  69.  i  :  Postero  die  Vitellius  senatus 
legatione,  quam  ibi  opperiri  iusserat,  audita  transgressus  in  castra 
ultro  pietatem  militum  conlaudavit,  frementibus  auxiliis  tantum 
impunitatis  atque  adrogantiae  legionariis  accessisse.  Batavorum 
cohortes,  ne  quid  truculentius  auderent,  in  Germaniam  remissae, 
principium  interno  simul  externoque  bello  parantibus  fatis.  Reddita 
civitatibus  Gallorum  auxilia  etc. 

4.  There  remains  for  consideration,  under  the  general 
head  of  connection  by  repetition,  a  considerable  number  of 
cases  in  which  the  word  containing  the  element  of  repetition 
is  not  expressed  but  clearly  implied  by  something  in  the 
meaning  of  the  second  sentence.  The  fact  that  the  repe- 
tition is  understood  rather  than  expressed  would  bar  these 
cases    from   the   present  chapter   if   it  were  not   true   that 


9©         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

there  is  always  something  incomplete  in  the  meaning  of 
some  word  in  the  second  sentence  which  clearly  points 
to  the  implied  repetition.  A  transitive  verb  rouses  the 
expectation  of  an  object  to  follow.  If  this  object  is  not 
expressed,  experience  teaches  us  to  supply  the  vacancy  by 
understanding  a  noun  fresh  in  our  minds  from  the  preced- 
ing sentence.  The  word  causa,  when  it  means  "reason," 
is  by  itself  incomplete ;  it  cannot  be  used  without  implying 
a  genitive  or  its  equivalent  to  define  the  meaning.  Some  of 
the  more  obvious  forms  of  implied  repetition  have  been 
cited  for  the  sake  of  comparison  in  the  discussion  of  rela- 
tives and  demonstratives,  and,  in  the  last  section,  it  was 
shown  that  the  use  of  pars,  or  quidam  or  any  words  express- 
ing repetition  of  some  part  of  a  preceding  element  of 
meaning,  to  a  certain  extent  implied  the  genitive  of  the 
whole  understood  with  the  pars  or  other  word.  Those  cases 
were  therefore  border  line  cases  between  the  two  categories. 
The  cases  in  the  present  section  are  arranged  for  conveni- 
ence according  to  the  part  of  speech  that  is  understood  and, 
in  the  case  of  nouns  or  their  equivalents,  according  to  the 
case  understood. 

The  instances  in  which  the  verb  of  a  sentence  is  under- 
stood from  the  preceding  sentence  are  rare,  but  they  are  also 
very  easy  to  understand.  We  require  a  verb  to  make  a 
sentence ;  if  there  is  none  expressed  we  of  necessity  supply 
one  and  the  one  most  natural  to  supply  is  the  one  still  in  our 
mind  from  the  preceding  sentence.  For  example,  Ann.  I. 
74.  19:  Igitur  Cn.  Piso  "quo"  inquit  "loco  censebis, 
Caesar?  Si  primus,  habebo  quod  sequar."  The  second 
sentence  is  grammatically  incomplete,  but  as  far  as  the 
thought  is  concerned  it  is  perfectly  clear,  for  censebis  is  as 
readily  understood  after  primus  as  though  it  were  expressed. 
Further  examples  are : 

Ann.  II.  40.  13 :  Percontanti  Tiberio,  quo  modo  Agrippa  f  actus 
esset,  respondisse  fertur  "quo  modo  tu  Caesar."  (The  respondisse 
anticipates  the  connection  and  the  case  has  already  been  cited  on 


Connection.  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         91 

that  account;  furthermore  the  repetition  of  quo  modo  is  in  itself 
a  means  of  connection.  But  quo  modo  is  incomplete  and  clearly 
implies  a  repeated  verb.)  Ann.  XVI.  31.  7:  Sic  gemmas  et  vestes 
et  dignitatis  insignia  dedi,  quo  modo  si  sanguinem  et  vitam  poposcis- 
sent.  (This  case  is  similar  to  the  last  in  the  incompleteness  of 
quo  modo,  which  here  implies  dedissem.)  H.  I.  29.  10:  Sextus  dies 
agitur,  commilitones,  ex  quo  ignarus  futuri,  et  sive  optandum  hoc 
nomen  sive  timendum  erat,  Caesar  adscitus  sim,  quo  domus  nostrae 
aut  rei  publicae  fato,  in  vestra  manu  positum  est,  etc.  (Spooner 
begins  a  new  sentence  with  the  second  quo.  Whether  this  is  done 
or  not,  the  expression  quo  fato  is  incomplete  and  adscitus  sim  under- 
stood is  a  strong  element  of  connection.)  H.  I.  84.  5:  quid  aliud 
quam  seditionem  et  discordiam  optabunt?  Ne  miles  centurioni,  ne 
centurio  tribuno  obsequatur,  hinc  confusi  pedites  equitesque  in 
exitium  ruamus.  Ag.  30.  18:  si  locuples  hostis  est,  avari,  si  pauper, 
ambitiosi  etc.  G.  19.  11  :  Sic  unum  accipiunt  maritum  quo  modo 
unum  corpus  unamque  vitam  etc.  (In  this  case  also,  the  actual 
repetition  of  a  word  is  one  means  of  expressing  the  connection.) 

When,  instead  of  a  verb,  a  substantive  is  omitted,  it  is 
still  as  a  rule  the  incompleteness  of  the  second  sentence 
which  makes  it  clear  that  there  is  repetition  understood ; 
this  is  often,  however,  far  less  obvious  than  in  the  case  of 
the  implied  verb  form.  The  connection,  in  cases  in  which 
the  genitive  of  a  noun  is  understood,  is  very  simple  to  under- 
stand but  the  element  of  incompleteness  is  not  always  easy 
to  locate.  For  instance,  the  cases  of  an  omitted  possessive 
genitive  are  very  clear  as  far  as  the  relation  of  sentences  is 
concerned,  but  the  incompleteness  of  the  second  sentence  is 
difficult  to  analyze.  H.  II.  16.  18,  furnishes  an  example 
of  this :  et  auxilii  inops  balneis  interficitur ;  trucidati  et 
comites.  Capita  ut  hostium  ipsi  interfectores  ad  Othonem 
tulere ;  etc.  That  eorum  or  some  equivalent  is  understood 
with  capita  is  evident;  just  why  it  is  so,  is  not  so  clear. 
Probably  the  incompleteness  is  due  to  the  fact  that  there  is 
no  pertinence  in  the  mention  of  heads  except  as  the  heads 
of  these  particular  people  under  discussion  are  meant  and 
therefore  the  possessive  genitive  is  implied.  The  part  pos- 
sessed usually  has  first  position  in  the  second  sentence  and 


92         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

the  cases  are  not  unlike  those  in  which  the  repetition  of 
some  part  of  a  previously  expressed  whole  is  used  to  make 
clear  the  connection.  Cases  in  which  parts  of  the  body  or 
such  parts  of  a  man  as  his  voice  or  mind  are  mentioned  in 
the  second  sentence  after  mention  of  the  man  in  the  first, 
are  especially  clear.     Examples  are : 

Ann.  XL  38.  i :  Tunc  primum  fortunam  suam  introspexit  fer- 
rumque  accepit,  quod  frustra  iugulo  aut  pectori  per  trepidationem 
admovens  ictu  tribuni  transigitur.  Corpus  matri  concessum.  H. 
III.  65.  II  :  Saepe  domi  congressi,  postremo  in  aede  ApoUinis,  ut 
fama  fuit,  pepigere.  Verba  vocesque  duos  testes  habebant  etc. 
H.  III.  3S.  10:  Quidam  obvia  aspernati  verberibus  tormentisque 
dominorum  abdita  scrutari,  def ossa  eruere :  faces  in  manibus, 
quas,  ubi  praedam  egesserant,  in  vacuas  domos  et  inania  templa  per 
lasciviam  iaculabantur,  etc.  Ag.  44.  3 :  Quod  si  habitum  quoque 
eius  posted  noscere  velint,  decentior  quam  sublimior  fuit;  nihil 
metus  in  vultu,  gratia  oris  supererat. 

This  is  easily  extended  to  the  mention  of  a  man's  relatives 
or  property,  first  with  such  concrete  words  as  filius,  frater, 
bona  or  libri  and  including  such  abstracts  as  inventus  or 
militia. 

Ann.  XII.  18.  I :  Interea  Mithridates  nuUo  in  armis  subsidio  con- 
sultat,  cuius  misericordiam  experiretur.  Frater  Cotys,  proditor 
olim,  deinde  hostis,  metuebatur  etc.     H.  III.  67.  6:    XV  Kalendas 

lanuarias Palatio  degreditur,  maesta  circum  familia;  ferebatur 

lecticula  parvulus  filius  velut  in  funebrem  pompam:  etc.  Ann.  XL 
31.  9:  Accusatio  tamen  apud  patres  adseveratione  eadem  peracta, 
iuravitque  Tiberius  petiturum  se  [sc.  fuisse]  vitam  quamvis  nocenti, 
nisi  voluntariam  mortem  properavisset.  Bona  inter  accusatores 
dividuntur,  etc.  Ann.  IV.  35.  ii  :  Egressus  dein  senatu  vitam 
abstinentia  finivit.  Libros  per  aediles  cremandos  censuere  patres: 
sed  manserunt,  occultati  et  editi.  Ann.  II.  42.  17:  finem  vitae  sponte 
an  fato  implevit.  Regnum  in  provinciam  redactum  est  etc.  Ann. 
XL  27-  10:  prorumpit  Narcissus  denuntiatque  centurionibus  et 
tribuno,  qui  aderat,  exsequi  caedem :  ita  imperatorem  iubere. 
Gustos  et  exactor  e  libertis  Euodus  datur.  G.  30.  i :  Ultra  hos 
Ghatti :    initium  sedis  ab  Hercynio  saltu  incohatur  etc. 

Often,  doubtless,  it  was  a  dative  instead  of  a  genitive  of 
possession    that    was    understood,    as    the    two    following 


UNIVEFJSJTY 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         93 

examples  indicate :  H.  I.  48.  5  :  Titus  Vinius  quinquaginta 
septem  annos  variis  moribtis  egit.  Pater  illi  praetoria 
familia,  maternus  aviis  e  proscriptis.  Prima  militia  infamis 
etc.  H.  II.  50.  I :  Origo  illi  e  municipio  Ferentino,  pater 
consularis,  avus  praetorius ;  maternum  genus  inpar  nee 
tamen  indecorum.  Pueritia  ac  iuventa,  qualem  mon- 
stravimus. 

More  nearly  akin  to  those  cases  in  which  a  part  of  some 
element  of  meaning  in  the  first  sentence  is  repeated  in  the 
second,  or  those  in  which  a  word  of  related  meaning  virtu- 
ally makes  repetition,  are  cases  in  which,  for  instance,  a 
tree  is  mentioned  in  the  first  sentence,  its  branches  in  the 
second,  a  man's  death  in  the  first,  his  will  in  the  second, 
troops  in  the  first,  their  leader  in  the  second,  or  a  city  in 
the  first,  its  walls  in  the  second.     Examples  are : 

Ann.  XV.  59.  21 :  Obiit  abruptis  brachiorum  venis.  Testamentum 
foedis  adversus  Neronem  adulationibus  amori  uxoris  dedit,  etc. 
H.  V.  22.  10 :  Romani  vulneribus  exciti  quaerunt  arma,  ruunt  per 
vias,  pauci  ornatu  militari,  plerique  circum  brachia  torta  veste  et 
strictis  mucronibus.  Dux  semisomnus  ac  prope  intectus  errore 
hostium    servatur :     namque    praetoriam    navem    vexillo    insignem, 

illic  ducem  rati,  abripiunt.     H.  V.  6.   13:    Lacus neque  vento 

inpellitur  neque  pisces  aut  suetas  aquis  volucres  patitur.  Inertes 
undae  superiecta  ut  solido  f erunt ;  etc.  H.  II.  19.  10 :  ceteros 
Placentiam  reduxit  minus  turbidos  et  imperia  accipientes.  Solidati 
muri,  propugnacula  addita,  auctae  turres  etc. 

Two  cases  imply  an  objective  genitive  repeated  from 
some  word  in  the  first  sentence:     Ann.  IV.  3.  13:  Atque 

ilia seque  ac  maiores  et  posteros  municipali  adultero 

foedabat,  ut  pro  honestis  et  praesentibus  flagitiosa  et  incerta 
exspectaret.  Sumitur  in  conscientiam  Eudemus  amicus  ac 
medicus  Liviae,  specie  artis  frequens  secretis.  H.  IV.  65. 
19 :  sed  coram  adire  adloquique  Velaedam  negatum : 
arcebantur  adspectu,  quo  venerationis  plus  inesset. 

There  are  some  words  which,  as  has  already  been  noted, 
from  their  incomplete  meaning  imply  a  genitive  of  refer- 


94         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

ence.  Most  familiar  are  the  cases  of  causa.  The  use  of 
causa  with  a  summary  noun — causa  fingendi,  causa  con- 
fusionis  etc.,  and  with  a  relative  or  demonstrative,  has 
already  been  illustrated.  These  make  the  cases  of  causa 
alone  comparatively  easy  to  understand,  but  the  use  is  infre- 
quent.    The  following  are  all  the  examples : 

Ann.   I.  7.   17 :    Literas  ad  exercitus  tamquam  adepto  principatu 
misit,  nusquam  cunctabundus  nisi  cum  in  senatu  loqueretur.     Causa 

praecipua  ex  formidine,  ne  Germanicus habere  imperium  quam 

exspectare  mallet.  Ann.  VI.  49.  i :  Isdem  diebus  Sex.  Papinius 
consulari  familia  repentinum  et  informem  exitium  delegit,  iacto  in 
praeceps  corpore.  Causa  ad  matrem  referebatur.  Ann.  IV.  1.3: 
Cum  repente  turbare  fortuna  coepit,  saevire  ipse  aut  saevientibus 
vires  praebere.  Initium  et  causa  penes  Aelium  Seianum  etc.  Ann. 
I.  80.  2 :  Id  quoque  morum  Tiberii  f uit,  contionare  imperia  ac 
plerosque  ad  finem  vitae  in  isdem  exercitibus  aut  iurisdictionibus 
habere.  Causae  variae  traduntur :  etc.  Ann.  XV.  ^6.  i :  Nee  multo 
post  omissa  in  praesens  Achaia  (causae  in  incerto  fuere)  urbem 
revisit,  provincias  Orientis,  maxime  Aegyptum,  secretis  imagina- 
tionibus  agitans. 

A  number  of  other  words  are  used  similarly : 

Ann.  XV.  38.   i:     Sequitur  clades omnibus,  quae  huic  urbi 

per  violentiam  ignium  acciderunt,  gravior  atque  atrocior.  Initium 
in  ea  parte  circi  ortum,  quae  Palatino  Caelioque  montibus  contigua 
est  etc.  H.  V.  2.  3 :  ludaeos  Creta  insula  profugos  novissima 
Libyae  insedisse  memorant,  qua  tempestate  Saturnus  vi  lovis  pulsus 
cesserit  regnis.  Argumentum  e  nomine  petitur:  etc.  Ann.  I.  58. 
10 :  ut  me  et  Arminium  et  conscios  vinciret  flagitavi :  testis  ilia  nox, 
mihi  utinam  potius  novissima !  D.  13.  4 :  malo  securum  et  quietum 
Virgilii  secessum,  in  quo  tamen  neque  apud  divum  Augustum  gratia 
caruit  neque  apud  populum  Romanum  notitia.  Testes  Augusti 
epistulae,  testis  ipse  populus,  etc.  D.  32.  2;^ :  Ergo  banc  primam  et 
praecipuam  causam  arbitror,  cur  in  tantum  ab  eloquentia  antiquorum 
oratorum  recesserimus.  Si  testes  desiderantur,  quos  potiores 
nominabo  quam  apud  Graecos  Demosthenen  etc.  H.  III.  72.  17: 
Isdem  rursus  vestigiis  situm  est,  postquam  interiecto  quadringen- 
torum  quindecim  annorum  spatio  L.  Scipione  C.  Norbano  consuli- 
bus  flagraverat.  Curam  victor  Sulla  suscepit,  neque  tamen  dedi- 
cavit:    hoc  solum  felicitati  eius  negatum.    Ann.  XIII.  i.  10:    Haec 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         95 

causa  necis.  Ministri  fuere  P.  Celer  eques  Romanus  et  Helius 
libertus,  rei  familiari  principis  in  Asia  impositi.  H.  III.  78.  15, 
after  various  accounts  of  the  delay  of  Vespasian's  forces :  Haud 
facile  quis  uni  adsignaverit  culpam,  quae  omnium  fuit.  Ann.  XV. 
63.  9 :  "Vitae"  inquit  "delenimenta  monstraveram  tibi,  tu  mortis 
decus  mavis :     non  invideo  exemplo. 


When  a  noun  in  the  accusative  is  understood  in  the  second 
sentence  it  is  either  the  direct  object  of  the  verb  or  one  of 
the  two  objects  of  a  verb  regularly  followed  by  two  accusa- 
tives. In  these  cases  the  incompleteness  in  the  sense,  if  the 
implied  word  is  not  assumed,  is  again  altogether  evident,  for 
a  transitive  verb  at  once  leads  to  the  anticipation  of  its 
object.     Examples  are: 

Ann.  II.  53.  10 :  Hinc  ventum  Athenas,  foederique  sociae  et 
vetustae    urbis    datum,    ut    uno    lictore    uteretur.     Excepere    Graeci 

quaesitissimis   honoribus.     H.   III.   84.   20:     Dein in    Palatium 

regreditur  vastum  desertumque,  dilapsis  etiam  infirmis  servitiorum 
aut  occursum  eius  declinantibus.  Terret  solitudo  et  tacentes  loci; 
etc.  H.  I.  60.  II  :  Quies  provinciae  quamquam  remoto  consulari 
mansit :  rexere  legati  legionum,  pares  iure,  Caelius  audendo 
potentior.  H.  IV.  43.  7 :  "Imus"  inquit  "Prisce,  et  relinquimus 
tibi  senatum  tuum :  regna  praesente  Caesare."  G.  32.  7 :  Inter 
f amiliam  et  penates  et  iura  successionum  equi  traduntur :  excipit 
filius,  non  ut  cetera,  maximus  natu,  sed  prout  ferox  bello  et  melior. 
G.  40.  16 :  Mox  vehiculum  et  vestes  et,  si  credere  velis,  numen  ipsum 
secreto  lacu  abluitur.  Servi  ministrant  quos  statim  idem  lacus 
haurit.  Ann.  XV.  2.  6 :  Videbarque  contra  Vetera  f  ratrum  odia 
et  certamina  familiae  nostrae  penates  rite  composuisse.  Prohibent 
Romani  et  pacem  numquam  ipsis  prospere  lacessitam  nunc  quoque 
in  exitium  suum  abrumpunt.  Ann.  IV.  34.  i :  Cremulatus  Cordus 
postulatur,  novo  ac  tunc  primum  audito  crimine,  quod  editis  annali- 
bus  laudatoque  M.  Bruto  C.  Cassium  Romanorum  ultimum  dixisset. 
Accusabant  Satrius  Secundus  et  Penarius  Natta,  Seiani  clientes. 
H.  IV.  27.  I  :  Forte  navem  haud  procul  castris,  frumento  gravem, 
cum  per  vada  haesisset,  Germani  in  suam  ripam  trahebant.  Non 
tulit  Gallus  misitque  subsidio  cohortem  etc.  Ann.  III.  43.  9: 
Adduntur  e  servitiis  gladiaturae  destinati,  quibus  more  gentico 
continuum  f erri  tegimen :  cruppellarios  vocant,  inferendis  ictibus 
inhabiles,  accipiendis  inpenetrabiles.  H.  III.  47.  14:  quin  et  barbari 
contemptim     vagabantur,     fabricatis     repente     navibus.       Camaras 


96         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

vocant    artis    lateribus    latam    alvum    sine    vinculo    aeris    aut    ferri 
connexam ;    etc. 

When  a  noun  in  the  dative  is  understood  in  the  second 
sentence,  it  is  regularly  the  indirect  object  of  the  verb, 
except  in  the  cases  already  pointed  out  under  the  genitive 
in  w^hich  a  dative  of  reference  or  possession  may  be  under- 
stood. The  incompleteness  of  the  second  sentence  without 
the  implied  word  is  once  more  quite  obvious. 

Ann.  VI.  33.  S :  Quae  postquam  Artabano  cognita,  filium  Oroden 
ultorem  parat ;  dat  Parthorum  copias  etc.  H.  II.  9.  i  :  Galatiam  ac 
Pamphyliam  provincias  Calpurnio  Asprenati  regendas  Galba  per- 
miserat.  Datae  e  classe  Misenensi  duae  triremes  etc.  Ann  XII. 
48.  2 :  vocat  consilium,  docet  acta  et  an  ulcisceretur  consultat. 
H.  II.  39.  6:  miles  alacer,  qui  tamen  iussa  ducum  interpretari  quam 
exsequi  mallet.  Promoveri  ad  quartum  a  Bedriaco  castra  placuit 
etc.  H.  IV.  69.  11:  Nondum  victoria,  iam  discordia  erat,  aliis 
foedera,  quibusdam  opes  viresque  aut  vetustatem  originis  per 
iurgia  iactantibus :    taedio  futurorum  praesentia  placuere. 

To  complete  the  collection  of  cases  in  which  repetition  is 
implied  in  the  second  sentence,  there  should  be  included 
examples  of  the  assumption  of  the  subject  in  the  second 
sentence.  This  is  naturally  very  frequent  in  Latin  because 
of  the  fact  that  the  person  is  expressed  in  the  ending-  of  the 
verb,  so  that  the  subject  cannot  be  said  to  be  entirely  unex- 
pressed when  it  is  not  actually  repeated  in  noun  form.  But, 
by  whatever  means  it  is  either  repeated  or  suggested,  when- 
ever the  subject  of  two  consecutive  sentences  is  the  same, 
there  is  virtually  a  case  of  repetition.  "Repetition  by  means 
of  the  verb  form"  might  be  a  better  description  of  the 
usage :  whatever  the  name,  the  element  of  connection  is 
practically  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  cases.  Examples 
of  this  type  of  connection,  though  very  numerous  indeed, 
are  not  altogether  satisfactory,  because,  as  a  rule,  there  are 
other  means  which  contribute  materially  to  the  expression 
of  connection,  such  as  the  rapidity  of  the  narrative  or  the 
summary  or  inventory  nature  of  the  paragraph.  The  fol- 
lowing, however,  will  illustrate  the  type : 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         97 

Ann.   II.   82.    14:    Forte   negotiatores,   vivente   adhuc   Germanico 
Suria  egressi,  laetiora  de  valetudine  eius  attulere.     Statim  credita, 

statim    vulgata    sunt :     etc.     Ann.    I.    29.    i :     Drusus incursat 

priora,  probat  praesentia;  negat  se  terrore  et  minis  vinci  etc.  Ann. 
XII.  47.  15:  secutaque  cum  parvis  liberis  coniunx  cuncta  lamenta- 
tione  complebat.  Diversis  et  contectis  vehiculis  abduntur,  dum 
Pharasmanis  iussa  exquirerentur.  H.  I.  69.  i :  Haud  facile  dictu 
est,  legati  Helvetiorum  minus  placabilem  imperatorem  an  militem 
invenerint.  Civitatis  excidium  poscunt,  tela  ac  manus  in  ora 
legatorum  intentant.  H.  IV.  55.  15 :  Sed  plurima  vis  penes 
Treveros  ac  Lingonas,  nee  tulere  moras  consultandi.  Certatim 
proclamant  furere  discordiis  populum  Romanum  etc. 


B. 

There  has  been  frequent  mention  throughout  the  pre- 
ceding- sections  of  connection  by  means  of  contrast.  In 
very  many  cases  already  cited  as  examples  of  other  types  of 
sentence  connection,  it  has  been  noted  that  the  element  of 
contrast  was  present  and  aided  materially  in  expressing  the 
relation  between  consecutive  sentences.  Kiihner  remarks 
on  this  use  of  contrast,  but  he  considers  it  a  purely  rhetorical 
device  and  tries  to  show  in  each  case  what  conjunction  is 
"omitted."  It  is  impossible  in  the  present  paper  to  go  into 
the  historical  side  of  the  question,  and  it  has  already  been 
clearly  stated  that  Tacitus  is  always  rhetorical.  At  the 
same  time,  for  the  rhetorical  efifects  at  which  he  aimed, 
he  necessarily  used  means  already  familiar  in  the  language. 
It  is  therefore  reasonable  to  suppose  that  connection  by  con- 
trast, which  is  used  continually  by  Tacitus,  sometimes  sup- 
ported by  further  means,  sometimes  without  them,  was  not 
a  device  confined  to  rhetorical  use  but  a  regularly  employed 
means  of  sentence  connection.  It  is  probably  much  nearer 
the  truth  to  say  that  this  method  is  often  employed  to 
express  the  same  connection  expressed  at  other  times  by 
an  adversative  conjunction,  than  to  say  that  when  contrast 
alone  is  employed,  an  adversative  conjunction  is  omitted. 

In  order  that  there  may  be  contrast  between  two  words, 
there  must  be  some  association  between  them.     Either  they 


98         Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

must  be  words  which,  because  of  their  meaning,  belong  to 
some  common  category,  or  else  their  use  in  the  particular 
context  in  which  they  occur  must  be  such  as  to  give  them 
some  temporary  association.  In  every  case  the  context 
will  have  some  influence  in  making  the  contrast.  The 
closest  approach  to  words  contrasted  purely  by  their  mean- 
ing, aside  from  any  influence  of  their  context,  is  found  in 
adjectives,  especially  those  positive  and  negative  adjectives 
formed  on  the  same  stem,  such  as  aeqims  and  iniquus  or 
constans  and  inconstans.  Practically  this  goes  farther: 
adjectives  in  the  same  category,  as,  for  instance,  those 
expressing  colour,  may  be  essentially  pure  contrasts. 
Such  are  albiis  and  niger,  or  in  other  categories,  plenus  and 
inanis,  vetus  and  novus.  Common  usage  has  given  to  cer- 
tain other  words  an  almost  essential  contrast,  though  origi- 
nally they  had  none.  Senatus  and  populiis  are  of  this  type. 
Finally,  comparatives  and  some  special  words  like  alius 
imply  by  their  meaning  a  certain  degree  of  contrast.  The 
other  extreme  is  to  be  found  in  words  which,  taken  by 
themselves,  would  suggest  no  contrast  whatever,  but  to 
which  the  context  alone  adds  this  element.  Such  are 
proper  names  and  innumerable  verbs.  Between  these  two 
extremes  there  are  many  cases  of  words  which  have  in  their 
meaning  a  certain  suggestion  of  contrast,  which,  however,  is 
only  made  evident  by  the  context.  Such  a  contrast  has 
already  been  cited  from  Ag.  37.  11:  lam  hostium,  prout 
cuique  ingenium,  catervae  armatorum  paucioribus  terga 
praestare,  quidam  inermes  ultro  ruere  ac  se  morti  oflferre. 
There  is  an  element  of  contrast  in  catervae  and  quidam, 
groups  and  individuals,  but  it  requires  the  context  to  bring 
this  out. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  contrasted  word  in  the  second  sen- 
tence is  the  first  word  and  very  often  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
reinforces  the  contrast.  This  is  naturally  more  necessary 
w^hen  the  contrast  is  due  largely  to  the  context  but  it  is  very 
often  the  case  even  in  instances  of  obviously  contrasted 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.         99 

words.  Sometimes  the  contrast  is  much  more  marked  in  the 
later  parts  of  the  sentence  than  in  the  first  contrasted  word, 
but,  as  has  already  been  noted,  it  is  the  first  element  of  con- 
nection which  reaches  the  mind,  that  suggests  the  relation 
of  the  sentences :  the  rest  reinforce  or  define  the  connection. 
Except  for  the  frequently  prominent  position  of  the  con- 
trasted word  in  the  first  sentence,  either  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sentence,  or  else  deliberately  displaced  from  its  natural 
position  in  order  to  point  the  contrast,  there  is  no  element 
of  anticipation  in  the  cases  of  connection  by  contrast. 

Before  taking  up  the  cases  in  which  contrast  is  the  prin- 
cipal means  of  expressing  the  sentence  connection,  those 
already  discussed,  in  which  contrast  was  an  important  fac- 
tor, should  be  noted  again.  Especially  in  many  of  the  cases 
of  anticipatory  connection,  contrast  is  prominent,  confirming 
the  connection  which  was  anticipated  in  the  first  sentence. 
In  those  cases  in  which  licet,  sane,  the  hypothetical  impera- 
tive and  (ceterus)  appeared  in  the  first  sentence,  it  was  the 
strong  contrast,  pointed  by  these  particular  words  or  forms, 
and  denoting  an  exception  to  some  general  rule  or  to  some 
expected  line  of  action,  that  gave  to  these  sentences  their 
concessive  force.  In  the  large  group  of  anticipatory  con- 
nections which  follow  these  special  cases  (namely,  those  in 
which  the  first  clause  is  negative,  the  second  aflirmative)  the 
underlying  connection  is  that  of  contrast ;  contrast  between 
negative  and  affirmative,  between  what  is  not  and  what  is 
true.  These  cases  fall  under  the  head  of  anticipatory  con- 
nection because  the  statement  in  the  negative,  at  least  after 
familiarity  with  the  type  has  been  acquired,  leads  to  the 
expectation  of  the  positive  statement  to  follow,  but  it  is 
equally  true  that  contrast  is  the  underlying  connection. 
Finally,  of  the  anticipatory  connections,  the  correlatives  owe 
their  connective  force  largely  to  contrast,  marked  by  the  use 
of  special  words  and  anticipatory  because  those  special 
words  fall  in  pairs  so  that  the  use  of  the  first  member  of  a 
pair  leads  to  the  expectation  of  the  second. 


loo       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

Contrast  will  also  be  found  to  be  prominent  in  some  of  the 
types  of  connection  still  to  be  studied.  Cases  in  which  the 
incompleteness  in  the  meaning  of  some  w^ord  in  the  second 
sentence  makes  the  connection,  frequently  depend  for  their 
connective  force,  to  a  considerable  degree,  on  the  element  of 
contrast :  this  is  especially  true  of  the  cases  of  comparatives, 
of  alius,  oi  (ceterus)  and  of  reliquus.  The  connections  made 
by  adverbs  often  show  very  strong  contrast.  Of  the  cases 
of  connection  expressed  in  the  first  sentence  with  a  promi- 
nent element  of  contrast,  sufficient  cases  have  been  given 
and  the  presence  of  the  contrast  has  been  pointed  out. 
Examples  of  the  other  types  in  which  contrast  is  a  contrib- 
uting element  will  be  included  in  the  present  section. 


I,  The  most  obvious  type  of  contrast,  theoretically,  but 
a  very  rare  one,  practically,  is  that  in  which  the  contrast  is 
essential  in  the  meanings  of  two  words  used,  each  in  one  of 
two  consecutive  sentences.  As  stated  above,  this  is  strictly 
confined  to  positive  and  negative  adjectives  formed  on  the 
same  stem.  But  there  are  no  cases  of  these  in  Tacitus  and, 
practically,  it  is  not  so  confined,  so  that  I  have  included 
numerous  adjectives  and  nouns  which  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  are  essentially  contrasted  by  their  meanings. 

Ann.  I.  28.  21:  Tarda  sunt  quae  in  commune  expostulantur : 
privatam  gratiam  statim  mereare,  statim  recipias.  Ann.  IV.  36.  12: 
Nam  ut  quis  destrictior  accusator,  velut  sacrosanctus  erat:  leves, 
ignobiles  poenis  adficiebantur.  Ann.  I.  67.  8:  Quae  domi  cara, 
quae  in  castris  honesta,  memorat;  reticuit  de  adversis.  Ann.  XV. 
48.  10:  sed  procul  gravitas  morum  aut  voluptatum  parsimonia; 
levitati  ac  magnificentiae  et  aliquando  luxu  indulgebat.  H.  I.  15. 
19 :  Fortunam  adhuc  tantum  adversam  tulisti :  secundae  res  acriori- 
bus  stimulis  animos  explorant,  quia  miseriae  tolerantur,  felicitate 
corrumpimur.  H.  I.  88.  15:  Sapientibus  quietis  et  rei  publicae  cura; 
levissimus  quisque  et  futuri  improvidus  spe  vana  tumens,  etc. 
H.  III.  21.  8:  cui  iuncta  a  laevo  septima  Galbiana  patenti  campo 
stetit,  dein  septima  Claudiana,  agresti  fossa  (ita  locus  erat)  prae- 
munita;  dextro  octava  per  apertum  limitem,  mox  tertia  densis 
arbustis  intersaepta.    H.   IV.  24.  9:    Aperta  odia  armaque  palam 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       loi 

depelH :  f  raudem  et  dolum  obscura  eoque  inevitabilia.  Ag.  19.  8 ; 
Omnia  scire,  non  omnia  exsequi.  Parvis  peccatis  veniam,  magnis 
severitatem  commodare  etc.  Ag.  34.  6 :  Quo  modo  silvas  saltusque 
penetrantibus  fortissimum  quodque  animal  contra  ruere,  pavida  et 
inertia  ipso  agminis  sono  pellebantur,  sic  acerrimi  Britannorum  iam 
pridem  ceciderunt,  reliquus  est  numerus  ignavorum  et  metuentium. 
G.  II.  i:  De  minoribus  rebus  principes  consultant,  de  maioribus 
omnes,  etc.     G.  32.  5 :    Sic  instituere  maiores :    posteri  imitantur. 


2.  At  the  opposite  extreme,  from  the  standpoint  of  con- 
trast in  the  meaning  of  the  words,  are  those  cases  in  which 
these  words  owe  all  their  element  of  contrast  to  the  context ; 
the  cases  in  which  words  are  used  which  by  themselves 
would  never  be  thought  of  as  contrasts  at  all.  The  nature 
of  the  connection  is  marked  by  the  usual  position  of  the  con- 
trasted word,  namely  first  in  the  second  clause,  and  by  the 
frequent  arrangement  of  the  two  clauses  in  parallel  or 
chiastic  order.  A  good  example  is  furnished  by  Ann.  1. 
74.  22 :  patiens  tulit  absolvi  reum  criminibus  maiestatis  : 
de  pecuniis  repetundis  ad  reciperatores  itum  est.  Without 
the  context,  the  two  charges,  treason  and  extortion,  would 
be  thought  of  as  similar  terms  from  a  common  category, 
but  not  as  contrasted  with  one  another.  But  the  context 
leaves  no  doubt  of  their  contrast,  which  is  reinforced  by  the 
juxtaposition  of  the  two  words  and  the  slight  contrast  in 
the  verbs.     Further  examples  are : 

Ann.  I.  58.  17:  Pro  iuventa  et  errore  filii  veniam  precor:  filiam 
necessitate  hue  adductam  fateor.  Ann.  VI.  28.  5 :  Sacrum  Soli  id 
animal  et  ore  ac  distinctu  pinnarum  a  ceteris  avibus  diversum  con- 
sentiunt  qui  f ormam  eius  effinxere :  de  numero  annorum  varia  tra- 
duntur.  Ann.  XV.  16.  16:  Decesserat  certamen  virtutis  et  ambitio 
gloriae,  f elicium  hominum  adfectus :  sola  misericordia  valebat,  et 
apud  minores  magis.  H.  I.  i.  10:  Sed  ambitionem  scriptoris  facile 
averseris,  obtrectatio  et  livor  pronis  auribus  accipiuntur;  etc.  H.  I. 
30.  5 :  Falluntur  quibus  luxuria  specie  liberalitatis  inponit :  perdere 
iste   sciet,    donare   nesciet.     H.    III.   38.    17:     Frustra   Vespasianum 

timeri,  quern  tot  Germanicae  legiones tantum  denique  terrarum 

ac  maris  inmensis  spatiis  arceat :   in  urbe  ac  sinu  cavendum  hostem, 


I02       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

etc.  H.  IV.  17.  24:  Libertatem  natura  etiam  mutis  animalibus 
datam,  virtutem  proprium  hominum  bonum ;  etc.  H.  V.  9.  3 :  Muri 
Hierosolymorum  diruti,  delubrum  mansit.  Ag.  6.  15 :  Idem  prae- 
turae  tenor  et  silentium;  nee  enim  iurisdictio  obvenerat;  ludos  et 
inania  honoris  medio  rationis  atque  abundantiae  duxit,  uti  longe  a 
luxuria,  ita  famae  propior.  Ag.  12.  2:  Honestior  auriga,  clientes 
propugnant.  Ag.  12.  21 :  nam  in  Rubro  mari  viva  ac  spirantia  saxis 
avelli,  in  Britannia,  prout  expulsa  sint,  colligi;  etc.  Ag.  18.  19: 
Sed  ut  in  subitis  consiliis  naves  deerant:  ratio  et  constantia  ducis 
transvexit.  Ag.  44.  11:  Opibus  nimiis  non  gaudebat,  speciosae 
contigerant.  G.  12.  5:  Diversitas  supplicii  illuc  respicit,  tamquam 
scelera  ostendi  oporteat,  dum  puniuntur,  flagitia  abscondi. 

3.  Between  the  two  extreme  types  of  contrast  illustrated 
in  the  last  two  paragraphs,  there  are  many  cases  in  which  it 
is  impossible  to  say  which  is  the  predominant  element  in 
suggesting  contrast,  the  meaning  of  the  words  in  their  com- 
mon use,  or  the  context:  both  contribute.  In  these  cases, 
as  in  nearly  all  of  those  in  which  contrast  is  the  connecting 
element,  the  word  in  the  second  sentence  which  expresses 
the  contrast  is  regularly  the  first  word,  and  very  frequently 
the  word  with  which  it  is  contrasted  is  the  last  in  the  preced- 
ing sentence.  Ann.  I.  i.  i  furnishes  a  typical  example: 
Urbem  Romam  a  principio  reges  habuere;  libertatem  et 
consulatum  L.  Brutus  instituit.  Reges  and  libertatem  et 
consulatum  are  not  essentially  contrasts  any  more  than  filiiis 
and  filia,  but  they  probably  were,  to  the  Roman  mind,  in 
pretty  sharp  contrast,  so  that  there  is  a  question  whether 
meaning  or  context  establishes  the  contrast.  Further  exam- 
ples are : 

Ann.  I.  3.  24:    Bellum  ea  tempestate  nullum  nisi  adversus  Ger- 

manos    supererat Domi    res    tranquillae   etc.     Ann.    I.   53.    19: 

cervicemque  percussoribus  obtulit,  constantia  mortis  haud  indignus 
Sempronio  nomine:  vita  degeneraverat.  Ann.  I.  72.  11:  facta 
arguebantur,  dicta  impune  erant.  Ann.  II.  38.  4:  singuli  numquam 
exsatiabuntur,  res  publica  deficiet.  Ann.  XIII.  56.  18:  quod 
iuventutis  erat  caeduntur,  inbellis  aetas  in  praedam  divisa  est. 
(Compare  Ann.  I.  56.  10,  for  the  same  contrast.)  Ann.  XV.  31.  7: 
apud  quos  vis   imperii   valet,   inania  tramittuntur.      (Compare   the 


Connection  Expressed  in  tJie  Second  Clause.       103 

contrast  of  vis  and  nomen  in  H.  IV.  11.  9,  and  IV.  39.  7).  H.  I. 
16.  g:  Nam  generari  et  nasci  e  principibus  fortuitum,  nee  ultra 
aestimatur:  adoptandi  iudicium  integrum,  et  si  velis  eligere,  con- 
sensu monstratur.  H.  II.  3.  10:  Sanguinem  arae  obfundere 
vetitum;  precibus  et  igne  puro  altaria  adolentur,  etc.  H.  III.  60. 
10:  Initia  bellorum  civilium  fortunae  permittenda:  victoriam  con- 
siliis  et  ratione  perfici.  H.  III.  69.  10 :  Sed  quod  in  eius  modi 
rebus  accidit,  consilium  ab  omnibus  datum  est,  periculum  pauci 
sumpsere.  H.  III.  23.  9:  Statim  confossi  sunt  eoque  intercidere 
nomina :  de  facto  baud  ambigitur.  H.  V.  6.  7 :  ut  quisque  ramus 
intumuit,  si  vim  ferri  adhibeas,  pavent  venae;  fragmine  lapidis  aut 
testa  aperiuntur;  umor  in  usu  medentium  est.  Ag.  46.  12:  ut 
vultus  hominum,  ita  simulacra  vultus  imbecilla  ac  mortalia  sunt, 
forma  mentis  aeterna,  etc.  G.  25.  5 :  Verberare  servum  ac  vinculis 
et  opere  coercere  rarum,  occidere  solent,  etc. 


4.  A  special  group  of  cases  like  the  preceding  is  formed 
by  those  in  which  the  words  contrasted  are  in  certain  obvious 
categories.  This  fact  does  not  at  all  change  the  nature  of 
the  connection,  but  just  as,  in  the  repetition  cases  in  which 
a  word  repeated  a  part  of  another,  the  fact  that  the  two 
were  in  the  same  obvious  category  made  the  connection 
clearer,  so  in  the  present  instance,  the  contrast  is  more 
obvious  for  the  same  reason.  Such  categories  consist  of 
divisions  of  the  army,  seasons  of  the  year,  ages,  relation- 
ships, classes  of  society,  geographically  associated  names, 
and  the  like.  The  cases  of  military  terms  are  naturally  the 
most  numerous  in  Tacitus :  especially  frequent  are  the  con- 
trasts between  eques  and  pedes,  and  between  exercitus  and 
classis.  The  same  influence  of  word  order  is  evident  as  in 
the  preceding  paragraphs.  The  following  will  illustrate  this 
very  extensive  class : 

Ann.  I.  42.  IS :  nos  ut  nondum  eosdem,  ita  ex  illis  ortos  si  His- 
paniae  Suriaeve  miles  aspernaretur,  tamen  mirum  et  indignum  erat. 

Primane  et  vicensima  legiones egregiam   duci   vestro   gratiam 

refertis?  Ann.  II.  19.  8:  Hie  pedes  adstitit:  equitem  propinquis 
lucis  texere  etc.  H.  II.  83.  5 :  sed  legio  sexta  et  tredecim  vexilla- 
riorum  milia  ingenti  agmine  sequebantur.  Classem  e  Ponto  Byzan- 
tium adigi  iusserat,  etc.     H.  IV.  2.  9:    praemissi  Ariciam  equites, 


I04       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

agmen  legionum  intra  Bovillas  stetit.  H.  IV.  33.  6:  id  solum  ut 
in  tumultu  monuit,  subsignano  milite  media  firmare:  auxilia  passim 
circumfusa  sunt.  Ann.  IV.  67.  9:  Caeli  temperies  hieme  mitis 
obiectu  montis,  quo  saeva  ventorum  arcentur;  aestas  in  favonium 
obversa  et  aperto  circum  pelago  peramoena ;    etc.     Ann.  VI.  33.  ii: 

cum aestas  impediret,  quia  fiatibus  etesiarum  implentur  vada: 

hibernus  auster  revolvit  fluctus  pulsoque  introrsus  freto  brevia 
litorum  nudantur.  H.  I.  84.  20:  Nationes  aliquas  occupavit 
Vitellius,  imaginem  quandam  exercitus  habet,  senatus  nobiscum  est; 
etc.  H.  IV.  83.  26:  irent  simulacrumque  patris  sui  reveherent, 
sororis  relinquerent.  H.  V.  4.  6:  bos  quoque  immolatur,  quoniam 
Aeg}'ptii  Apin  colunt.  Sue  abstinent  memoria  cladis,  quod  ipsos 
scabies  quondam  turpaverat.  cui  id  animal  obnoxium.  H.  V.  8.  4: 
Ad  fores  tantum  ludaeo  aditus,  limine  praeter  sacerdotes  arce- 
bantur.  G.  6.  2  :  Rari  gladiis  aut  maioribus  lanceis  utuntur :  hastas 
vel  ipsorum  vocabulo  frameas  gerunt  angusto  et  brevi  ferro,  etc. 
G.  6.  5 :  Et  eques  quidem  scuto  f rameaque  contentus  est,  pedites  et 
missilia  spargunt,  etc.  G.  23.  4:  sine  apparatu,  sine  blandimentis 
expellunt  famem.  Adversus  sitim  non  eadem  temperantia.  G.  35. 
I :  Hactenus  in  occidentem  Germaniam  novimus :  in  septentrionem 
ingenti  flexu  recedit. 

5.  Another  special  class  of  connections  by  contrast  com- 
prises the  cases  in  which  the  names  of  persons,  either  as 
individuals  or  as  groups,  are  contrasted.  These  are  not  at 
all  different  from  the  other  cases  in  which  the  context  made 
the  contrast :  they  are  merely  a  rather  extensive  group  of 
such  cases.  In  sense,  the  names  are  regularly  the  subjects 
of  their  clauses ;  grammatically,  they  are  often  dependent 
on  prepositions.     Examples  are: 

Names  OF  Individuals.  Ann.  I.  46.  8:  An  Augustum  fessa  aetate 
totiens  in  Germanias  commeare  potuisse:  Tiberium  vigentem  annis 
sedere  in  senatu,  verba  patrum  cavillantem?  Ann.  XIII.  20.  7: 
Fabius  Rusticus  auctor  est,  scriptos  esse  ad  Caecinam  Tuscum 
codicillos,  mandata  ei  praetoriarum  cohortium  cura,  sed  ope  Senecae 
dignationem  Burro  retentam :  Plinius  et  Cluvius  nihil  dubitatum  de 
fide  praefecti  referunt  etc.  H.  I.  77.  i  :  Sic  distractis  exercitibus  ac 
provinciis  Vitellio  quidem  ad  capessendam  principatus  fortunam 
bello  opus  erat,  Otho  ut  in  multa  pace  munia  imperii  obibat,  etc. 
H.  IV.  9.  3 :  Eam  curam  consul  designatus  ob  magnitudinem  oneris 
et    remedii    difficultatem    principi    reservebat :     Helvidius    arbitrio 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       105 

senatus  agendum  censuit.  Ag.  46.  18:  nam  multos  veterum  velut 
inglorios  et  ignobilis  oblivio  obruit:  Agricola  posteritati  narratus 
et  traditus  superstes  erit.  G.  9.  i :  Deorum  maxime  Mercurium 
colunt,  cui  certis  diebus  humanis  quoque  hostiis  litare  fas  habent. 
Herculem  ac  Martem  concessis  animalibus  placant. 

Names  of  Groups,  Especially  Nations.  Ann.  XII.  32.  8:  Et 
Brigantes  quidem,  paucis  qui  arma  coeptabant  interfectis,  in  reliquos 
data  venia,  resedere :  Silurum  gens  non  atrocitate,  non  dementia 
mutabatur,  quin  bellum  exerceret  castrisque  legionum  premenda 
foret.  H.  IV.  29.  11:  Apud  Germanos  inconsulta  ira:  Romanus 
miles  periculum  gnarus  ferratas  sudes,  gravia  saxa  non  forte 
iaciebat.  H.  V.  5.  17:  Aegyptii  pleraque  animalia  effigiesque 
compositas  venerantur,  ludaei  mente  sola  unumque  numen  intelle- 
gunt:  etc.  Ag.  31.  7:  Nata  servituti  mancipia  semel  veneunt,  atque 
ultro  a  dominis  aluntur:  Britannia  servitutem  suam  quotidie  emit, 
quotidie  pascit.  Ag.  31.  17:  Brigantes  femina  duce  exurere 
coloniam,  expugnare  castra,  ac  nisi  felicitas  in  socordiam  vertisset, 

exuere    iugum    potuere :     nos    integri    et    indomiti ostendamus 

quos  sibi  Caledonia  viros  seposuerit.  G.  36.  5 :  Ita  qui  olim  boni 
aequique  Cherusci,  nunc  inertes  ac  stulti  vocantur :  Chattis  victori- 
bus  fortuna  in  sapientiam  cessit.  G.  46.  I :  Hie  Suebiae  finis. 
Peucinorum  Venedorumque  et  Fennorum  nationes  Germanis  an 
Sarmatis  adscribam  dubito,  etc. 

Names  Used  with  Prepositions.  Ann.  IV.  25.  6:  aderant  semi- 
somnos  in  barbaros,  praepeditis  Numidarum  equis  aut  diversos 
pastus  pererrantibus.  Ab  Romanis  confertus  pedes,  dispositae 
turmae  etc.  H.  II.  26.  16:  Apud  paucos  ea  ducis  ratio  probata,  in 
vulgus  adverso  rumore  fuit.  H.  V.  5.  6:  Separati  epulis,  discreti 
cubilibus,  proiectissima  ad  libidinem  gens,  alienarum  concubitu 
abstinent;  inter  se  nihil  inlicitum.  Ag.  45.  8:  Nero  tamen  sub- 
traxit  oculos  suos  iussitque  scelera,  non  spectavit:  praecipua  sub 
Domitiano  miseriarum  pars  erat  videre  et  aspici. 

6.  There  are  a  number  of  words  which  are  frequently- 
used  in  the  second  of  two  consecutive  sentences  and  which, 
by  their  meaning,  express  a  contrast  with  something  in  the 
first  sentence.  Aside  from  certain  adverbs,  which  will  be 
discussed  in  the  next  section,  these  words  are  alius, 
(ceterus)  and  reliquus.  It  is  largely  through  the  incom- 
pleteness of  their  meaning  that  these  words  tend  to  turn  the 
thought  toward  the  preceding  sentence  and  they  will  there- 


io6       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

fore  be  discussed  again  in  a  later  section.  At  the  same 
time,  they  very  frequently  serve  to  mark  the  contrast 
between  two  sentences,  and  such  instances  only  will  be 
illustrated  here.  With  the  contrast  there  is  very  often 
present  a  decided  element  of  repetition — repetition  of  a  part 
of  some  element  of  meaning  in  the  first  sentence.  Ann.  III. 
63.  4  illustrates  this  well :  Consules  super  eas  civitates,  quas 
memoravi,  apud  Pergamum  Aesculapii  conpertum  asylum 
rettulerunt:  ceteros  obscuris  ob  vetustatem  initiis  niti.  The 
civitates  refers  to  a  large  number  of  Greek  cities,  including 
Pergamum,  that  have  sent  legates  to  the  Roman  senate  to 
plead  for  the  preservation  of  asylums  which  they  maintained. 
Pergamum,  therefore,  and  ceteros  both  repeat  a  part  of  the 
collective  idea  which  is  summarily  expressed  in  civitates. 
At  the  same  time  there  is,  between  the  two,  strong  contrast 
which  depends  largely  for  its  expression  on  the  meaning  of 
the  ceteros,  reinforced,  to  be  sure,  by  the  contrast  between 
conpertum  and  obscuris.     Further  examples  are : 

Ann.  V.  6.  4:  Versa  est  fortuna,  et  ille  quidem,  qui  collegam  et 
generum  adsciverat,  sibi  ignoscit:  ceteri,  quern  per  dedecora  fovere, 
cum  scelere  insectantur.  Ann.  XIV.  12.  7:  ac  sibi  causam  periculi 
fecit,  ceteris  libertatis  initium  non  praebuit.  (This  case  is  inter- 
esting because  of  the  rhetorical  device  in  the  second  clause  which 
makes  it  at  first  doubtful  whether  it  is  a  good  instance  of  contrast. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  two  clauses  are  not  squarely  contrasted 
when  their  meaning  as  wholes  is  considered.  But  Tacitus  makes 
use  of  ceteris,  which  leads  to  an  expectation  of  contrast  in  order 
to  make  the  conclusion  of  the  clause  more  striking  because  of  its 
unexpectedness.)  Ann.  XV.  42.  10:  Neque  enim  aliud  umidum 
gignendis  aquis  occurrit  quam  Pomptinae  paludes :  cetera  abrupta 
aut  arentia  etc.  H.  III.  55.  9:  his  tributa  dimittere,  alios  immuni- 
tatibus  iuvare,  etc.  H.  III.  77.  10:  Sex  Liburnicae  inter  primum 
tumultum  evasere,  in  quis  praefectus  classis  Apollinaris;  reliquae 
in  litore  captae,  aut  nimio  ruentium  onere  pressas  mare  hausit. 
H.  IV.  2.  4 :  Is  pecuniam  f amiliamque  e  principis  domo  quasi 
Cremonensem  praedam  rapere :  ceteri  modestia  vel  ignobilitate  ut 
in  hello  obscuri,  ita  praemiorum  expertes.  H.  IV.  4.  12:  Eaque 
omnia  Valerius  Asiaticus  consul  designatus  censuit:  ceteri  vultu 
manuque,  pauci,  quibus  conspicua  dignitas  aut  ingenium  adulatione 
exercitum,  compositis  orationibus  adsentiebantur.     G.  25.  3:    Fru- 


Coimcction  Expressed  in  tlic  Second  Clause.        107 

menti  modum  dominus  aut  pecoris  aut  vestis  ut  colono  iniungit,  et 
servus  hactemis  paret:  cetera  domus  officia  uxor  ac  liberi  exse- 
quuntur.  G.  25.  10:  Ibi  enim  et  super  ingenuos  et  super  nobiles 
ascendunt:  apud  ceteros  impares  libertini  libertatis  argumentum 
sunt. 

The  cases  of  alius  deserve  special  attention,  because  alius 
is  regularly  contrasted  with  a  definite  group  of  words: 
either  another  alius,  forming  the  familiar  correlative  pair, 

alius alius,    or    else   plerique,    multi,   sunt    qui,    pars, 

quidam,  or  some  similar  word.  These  have  already  been 
noted  under  that  type  of  repetition  in  which  only  part  of  an 
element  of  meaning  is  repeated,  and  all  of  them  are  used  in 
that  way.  But  even  when  so  used  there  is  also  present  a 
strong  element  of  contrast  between  the  clauses  in  which 
these  words  occur.  Often  the  contrast  is  present  without  the 
repetition.  So  regularly  is  some  one  of  these  words  used  in 
one  sentence  and  alius  in  the  next  that  the  use  in  one  sen- 
tence of  multi,  plerique  and  the  like,  nearly  always  suggests 
a  sentence  with  alius  to  follow  and  so  becomes  an  anticipa- 
tory means  of  connection.  Although  the  cases  with  alius 
in  the  second  sentence  are  the  familiar  type,  (ceterus)  is 
sometimes  used  in  the  same  way  and  not  infrequently  the 
various  words  cited  above  are  used  to  make  contrast  with 
each  other  without  either  alius  or  (ceterus)  in  the  pair  or 
series.     The  following  examples  illustrate  the  usage : 

Ann.  I.  29.  13 :  vocatos  Vibulenum  et  Percennium  interfici  iubet. 
Tradunt  plerique  intra  tabernaculum  ducis  obrutos,  alii  corpora 
extra  vallum  abiecta  ostentui.  Ann.  I.  80.  4:  Causae  variae  tra- 
duntur:  alii  taedio  novae  curae  semel  placita  pro  aeternis  serva- 
visse,  quidam  invidia,  ne  plures  fruerentur;  sunt  qui  existiment,  ut 
callidum  eius  ingenium,  ita  anxium  iudicium;  etc.  Ann.  III.  19.  7: 
dum  alii  quoquo  modo  audita  pro  conpertis  habent,  alii  vera  in 
contrarium  vertunt,  et  gliscit  utrumque  posteritate.  Ann.  III.  38. 
18:  Pars  turbant  praesentia,  alii  montem  Haemum  transgrediuntur, 
ut  remotos  populos  concirent;  plurimi  ac  maxime  compositi  regem 
urbemque  Philippopolim,  a  Macedone  Philippo  sitam,  circumsidunt. 
Ann.  XL  10.  18:  Multi  ad  Gotarzen  inclinabant,  quidam  ad  Meher- 
daten    prolem    Phraatis,    obsidio    nobis     datum :      dein    praevaluit 


io8       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

Gotarzes.  Ann.  XIV.  9.  2:  sunt  qui  tradiderint,  sunt  qui  abnuant. 
Ann.  XIV.  23.  7 :  Barbari,  pro  ingenio  quisque,  alii  preces  offerre, 
quidam  deserere  vicos  et  in  avia  digredi ;  ac  f uere  qui  se  speluncis  et 
carissima  secum  abderent.  Ann.  XV.  6.  i :  Haec  plures  ut  f ormidine 
regis  et  Corbulonis  minis  patrata  ac  magnifica  extollebant :  alii 
occulte  pepigisse  interpretebantur  etc.  H.  IV.  2.  15:  Paucos  erump- 
ere  ausos  circumiecti  oppressere ;  ceteri  in  custodiam  conditi,  nihil 
quisquam  locutus  indignum,  et  quamquam  inter  adversa,  salva 
virtutis  fama.  H.  IV.  62.  7:  Alii  nulla  dedecoris  cura  pecuniam 
aut  carissima  sibimet  ipsi  circumdare,  quidam  expedire  arma  telisque 
tamquam  in  aciem  accingi.  Ag.  40.  20:  adeo  uti  plerique,  quibus 
magnos  viros  per  ambitionem  aestimare  mos  est,  viso  aspectoque 
Agricola  quaererent  famam,  pauci  interpretarentur. 

7.  Finally,  adverbs  are  used  either  to  express  or  to  make 
obvious  the  contrast  between  two  sentences.  The  general 
subject  of  connection  by  means  of  adverbs  and  adverbial 
phrases  will  be  discussed  in  a  later  section :  at  present  only 
those  containing-  an  element  of  contrast  are  under  consider- 
ation. This  element  of  contrast  is  to  be  found  sometimes 
in  the  meaning  of  the  adverb  itself,  as  in  contra,  sometimes 
in  the  pairing  of  two  contrasted  adverbs,  as  in  hie,  illic,  some- 
times in  clauses  introduced  by  such  conjunctions  as  ut^  cum, 
or  uhi  and  having  the  same  effect  as  adverbs.  The  second 
type  is  the  most  frequent.  Of  the  first  type,  the  cases  with 
contra  are  obvious : 

Ann.  III.  10.  I :  Postera  die  Fulcinius  Trio  Pisonem  apud  con- 
sules  postulavit.  Contra  Vitellius  ac  Veranius  ceterique  Germani- 
cum  comitati  tendebant,  nullas  esse  partis  Trioni;  etc.  Ann.  VI.  8. 
9:  Illius  propinqui  et  adfines  honoribus  augebantur;  ut  quisque 
Seiano  intimus,  ita  ad  Caesaris  amicitiam  validus :  contra  quibus 
infensus  esset,  metu  ac  sordibus  conflictabantur.  H.  II.  10.  10 :  Sed 
propria  vi  Crispus  incubuerat  delatorem  fratris  sui  pervertere, 
traxeratque  magnam  senatus  partem,  ut  indefensum  et  inauditum 
dedi  ad  exitium  postularent.  Contra  apud  alios  nihil  aeque  reo 
proderat  quam  nimia  potentia  accusatoris :  etc.  H.  II.  22.  7 : 
Legionarius  pluteis  et  cratibus  tectus  subruit  muros,  instruit 
aggerem,  molitur  portas :  contra  praetoriani  dispositos  ad  id  ipsum 
molares  ingenti  pondere  ac  fragore  provolvunt.  G.  39.  11 :  Adicit 
auctoritatem     fortuna     Semnorum :     centum    pagi    iis    habitantur. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       109 

magnoque  corpore  efficitur  ut  se  Sueborum  caput  credant.     Contra 
Langobardos  paucitas  nobilitat:    etc. 

It  is  noticeable  in  these  cases  with  contra  that  the  essential 
contrast  is  quite  independent  of  the  adverb,  which  serves 
merely  to  make  it  obvious.  Contrasted  names,  words  in  the 
same  category,  use  of  alius — these  in  themselves  form  the 
connection,  and  the  influence  of  the  contra  is  superficial. 
The  same  will  be  seen  in  the  following  cases  of  ex  diverso 
and  e  contrario: 

H.  II.  5.  4,  at  the  close  of  a  description  of  Vespasian :  prorsus, 
si  avaritia  abesset,  antiquis  ducibus  par.  Mucianum  e  contrario 
magnificentia  et  opes  et  cuncta  privatum  modum  supergressa 
extollebant;  etc.  H.  III.  54.  3:  Quippe  confitenti  consultantique 
supererant  spes  viresque:  cum  e  contrario  laeta  omnia  fingeret, 
falsis  ingravescebat.  H.  III.  73.  2:  Quippe  Vitellianus  miles  neque 
astu  neque  constantia  inter  dubia  indigebat:  ex  diverso  trepidi 
milites,  dux  segnis  et  velut  captus  animi  non  lingua,  non  auribus 
competere,  etc.  H.  IV.  16.  7 :  Ubi  insidiae  parum  cessere,  ad  vim 
transgressus  Canninefates,  Frisios,  Batavos  propriis  cuneis  com- 
ponit :  derecta  ex  diverso  acies  baud  procul  a  flumine  Rheno  et 
obversis  in  hostem  navibus,  quas  incensis  castellis  illuc  adpulerant. 

In  the  one  case  in  which  the  adverb  alitcr  is  used  to 
express  the  connection,  it  does  not,  like  contra,  merely 
emphasize  the  contrast,  but  by  itself  expresses  it.  The  case 
is  H.  IV.  59.  16:  Classicus  corruptissimum  quemque  e 
deditis  pergere  ad  obsessos  iubet,  veniam  ostentantes,  si 
praesentia  sequerentur :  aliter  nihil  spei,  famem  f errumque 
et  extrema  passuros.  The  aliter  itself  expresses  the  contrast 
with  the  si  clause  in  the  first  sentence,  though  it  is  reinforced 
by  the  contrast  in  veniam  and  nihil  spei.  (The  adversative 
relation  of  the  clauses  in  the  last  part  of  the  quotation  is 
noticeable,  expressed  by  the  contrast  between  spei  with  the 
negative  on  the  one  hand,  and  famem  etc.,  on  the  other,  the 
common  construction  of  the  two  clauses  assisting  in  the 
connection.)  Aliter  is  used  to  reinforce  another  means  of 
connection  in  Ann.  XV.  68.  i :  Proximum  constantiae  exem- 


no       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

plum  Sulpicius  Asper  centurio  praebuit,  percontanti  Neroni, 
cur  in  caedem  suam  conspiravisset,  breviter  respondens  non 
aliter  tot  flagitiis  eius  subveniri  potuisse.  Finally,  in  D.  32. 
2,  aliter  is  repeated,  but  still  from  its  meaning-  marks  con- 
trast :    aliter  utimur  propriis,  aliter  commodatis. 

Two  other  adverbs  belong  in  the  present  category :  nunc, 
used  in  an  adversative  sense,  and  rursus,  meaning  "on  the 
other  hand."  This  use  of  nunc  is  like  that  of  vi>v  8e  in  Greek, 
to  contrast  what  is  actually  true  with  some  contrary  to  fact 
condition  expressed  in  the  preceding  clause.  This  condition 
has  a  certain  anticipatory  force  because  of  the  incomplete- 
ness of  its  meaning  as  it  stands  alone.  Ag.  34.  i  furnishes 
a  good  example:  Si  novae  gentes  atque  ignota  acies  con- 
stitisset,  aliorum  exercituum  exemplis  vos  hortarer :  nunc 
vestra  decora  recensete,  vestros  oculos  interrogate.  The 
nunc  expresses  the  contrast  between  the  state  of  affairs  as 
they  really  are  and  the  theoretical  state  suggested  in  the  si 
clause  of  the  first  sentence.     Further  examples  are : 

Ann.  II.  71.  3:  Si  fato  concederem,  iustus  mihi  dolor  etiam  adver- 
sus  decs  esset,  quod  me  parentibus  liberis  patriae  intra  iuventam 
praematuro  exitu  raperent:  nunc  scelere  Pisonis  et  Plancinae  inter- 
ceptus  ultimas  preces  pectoribus  vestris  relinquo  etc.  Ann.  XL  6. 
7:  Quodsi  in  nullius  mercedem  negotia  agantur,  pauciora  fore: 
nunc  inimicitias,  accusationes,  odia  et  iniurias  foveri,  ut  quo  modo 
vis  morborum  pretia  medentibus,  sic  fori  tabes  pecuniam  advocatis 
ferat.  Ann.  XIII.  21.  12:  Nam  Domitiae  inimicitiis  gratias  agerem, 
si  benevolentia  mecum  in  Neronem  meum  certaret :  nunc  per  con- 
cubinum  Atimetum  et  bistrionem  Paridem  quasi  scaenae  fabulas 
componit.  H.  I.  16.  i  :  Si  inmensum  imperii  corpus  stare  ac  librari 
sine  rectore  posset,  dignus  eram  a  quo  res  publica  inciperet :  nunc 
eo  necessitatis  iam  pridem  ventum  est,  ut  nee  mea  senectus  conferre 
plus  populo  Romano  possit  quam  bonum  principem.  H.  I.  37.  24: 
Minore  avaritia  ac  licentia  grassatus  esset  T.  Vinius,  si  ipse 
imperasset:  nunc  et  subiectos  nos  habuit  tamquam  suos  et  viles  ut 
alienos. 

Rursus  has  no  phrase  like  the  contrary  to  fact  condition 
which  regularly  anticipates  it.  It  merely  marks  two  exist- 
ing facts  as  being  in  contrast  with  each  other. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.        m 

Ann.  XL  28.  8:  Subibat  sine  dubio  metus  reputantes  hebetem 
Claudium  et  uxori  devinctum  multasque  mortes  iussu  Messalinae 
patratas :  rursus  ipsa  f  acilitas  imperatoris  fiduciam  dabat,  si  atro- 
citate  criminis  praevaluissent,  posse  opprimi  damnatam  ante  quam 
ream;  etc.  H.  II.  94.  2:  Sibi  quisque  militiam  sumpsere :  quamvis 
indignus,  si  ita  maluerat,  urbanae  militiae  adscribebatur ;  rursus 
bonis  remanere  inter  legionarios  aut  alares   volentibus  permissum. 

The  two  remaining  types  of  contrast  expressed  by 
adverbs  or  by  adverbial  phrases  are  hardly  distinct  groups, 
for  each  case  listed  under  them  belongs  to  one  or  another 
of  the  first  three  groups  of  adverbial  connection.  They  all 
have,  however,  a  superficial  resemblance  to  each  other  due 
to  the  expression  of  the  contrast  by  means  of  contrasted 
adverbs  in  the  one  case,  contrasted  clauses  with  the  same 
effect  as  adverbs  in  the  other.  In  such  a  case  as  H.  I.  68.  5, 
the  adverbs  are  contrasted  almost  entirely  by  their  meaning: 
hinc  Caecina  cum  valido  exercitu,  inde  Raeticae  alae  cohoct- 
esque  et  ipsorum  Raetorum  inventus,  sueta  armis  et  more 
militiae  exercita.  In  other  instances  the  context  has  more 
or  less  influence  in  causing  the  contrast.  Only  a  few  other 
cases  of  these  contrasted  adverbs  are  given  because  the 
usage  has  been  illustrated  already  with  other  parts  of 
speech. 

Ann.  I.  61.  14:  Et  cladis  eius  superstites,  pugnam  aut  vincula 
elapsi,  referebant  hie  cecidisse  legatos,  illic  raptas  aquilas  etc. 
Ann.  XII.  63.  10 :  Unde  primo  quaestuosi  et  opulenti ;  post  mag- 
nitudine  onerum  urguente  finem  aut  modum  orabant  etc.  H.  III.  a. 
21 :  Duae  tunc  Pannonicae  ac  Moesicae  alae  perrupere  hostem : 
nunc  sedecim  alarum  coniuncta  signa  pulsu  sonituque  et  nube  ipsa 
operient  ac  superfundent  oblitos  proeliorum  equites  equosque.  Ag. 
12.  2 :  Olim  regibus  parebant,  nunc  per  principes  f  actionibus  et 
studiis  distrahuntur.  Ag.  12.  17:  tarde  mitescunt,  cito  proveniunt; 
etc.  G.  33.  I :  luxta  Tencteros  Bructeri  olim  occurrebant :  nunc 
Chamavos  et  Angrivarios  inmigrasse  narratur,  etc.  G.  34.  i : 
Angrivarios  et  Chamavos  a  tergo  Dulgubnii  et  Chasuarii  cludunt 
aliaeque  gentes  baud  perinde  memoratae,  a  fronte  Frisii  excipiunt. 

A  few  examples  will  be  sufficient  also  to  illustrate  the  use 
of  contrasted  clauses  to  express  the  same  sort  of  connection 


112       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

that  is  expressed  by  the  adverbs  just  cited.  The  element  of 
contrast  does  not  depend  at  all  on  the  type  of  clause  used 
but  on  the  meaning  of  words  or  phrases  in  the  clauses. 
Examples  are: 

Ann.  IV.  i8.  ii :  Nam  beneficia  eo  usque  laeta  sunt,  dum 
videntur  exsolvi  posse:  ubi  multum  antevenere,  pro  gratia  odium 
redditur.  Ann.  IV.  31.  20:  Eius  operae  memor  Tiberius,  sed  alia 
praetendens,  exilium  deprecatus  est:  quo  minus  senatu  pelleretur 
non  obstitit.  Ann.  IV.  34.  27:  Namque  spreta  exolescunt:  si 
irascare,  adgnita  videntur.  Ann.  XIV.  55.  11 :  Et  tua  quidem  erga 
me  munera,  dum  vita  suppetet,  aeterna  erunt:  quae  a  me  habes, 
horti  et  faenus  et  villae,  casibus  obnoxia  sunt.  H.  I.  79.  10:  Nihil 
ad  pedestrem  pugnam  tam  ignavum :  ubi  per  turmas  advenere,  vix 
ulla  acies  obstiterit.  H.  IT.  47.  6 :  Civile  bellum  a  Vitellio  coepit,  et 
ut  de  principatu  certaremus  armis,  initium  illinc  f  uit :  ne  plus  quam 
semel  certemus,  penes  me  exemplum  erit :  etc.  H.  IV.  57.  13 : 
Nunc  hostes,  quia  molle  servitium ;  cum  spoliati  exutique  fuerint, 
amicos  fore.  H.  IV.  75.  5 :  si  Cerialis  imperium  Galliarum  velit 
ipsos  finibus  civitatium  suarum  contentos ;  si  proelium  malit,  ne  id 
quidem  abnuere. 


c. 

In  the  chapter  that  dealt  with  connections  expressed  in 
the  first  of  two  consecutive  sentences,  a  number  of  words 
like  dico  were  cited  which  were  incomplete  words  and  which 
led  the  reader,  with  his  background  of  experience,  to  antici- 
pate a  clause  or  sentence  to  follow.  These  words  were 
comparatively  few.  There  are  a  great  many  more  which 
are  just  as  incomplete,  but  which  lead  the  reader,  again 
because  of  his  background  of  experience,  to  turn  his 
thought  not  forward  but  backward,  to  the  clause  preceding 
the  one  in  which  they  stand.  This  is  not  an  altogether  sat- 
isfactory category  because  rarely  is  the  incompleteness  of 
a  word  in  the  second  clause  the  sole  element  of  connection, 
so  that  it  is  difficult  to  illustrate  the  group  with  simple 
examples.  It  is  often  almost  impossible  to  say  whether 
connection  lies  in  the  incompleteness  of  a  word  or  in  the 
implied  repetition  from  the  preceding  sentence  of  a  word 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       113 

to  complete  its  meaning.  This  is  a  minute  and  perhaps  not 
a  valuable  distinction,  except  to  make  clear  that  some 
words,  probably  by  virtue  of  their  frequent  use,  have  actu- 
ally within  their  own  meaning-  an  incompleteness  which 
forces  the  reader  to  refer  to  what  has  preceded  if  he  is  to 
grasp  the  sense.  In  such  cases  reference  is  regularly  to  the 
whole  preceding  sentence,  but  even  when  this  is  not  so,  the 
element  of  incompleteness  plays  an  important  part  in  estab- 
lishing the  connection.  For  example,  in  H.  III.  33.  i,  the 
following  phrase  comes  directly  after  the  account  of  the 
fall  of  Cremona:  Quadraginta  armatorum  milia  inrupere. 
Undoubtedly  Cremonae  or  urbi  or  some  equivalent  expres- 
sion is  more  or  less  distinctly  understood  with  the  verb 
inrupere.  But  equally  without  doubt,  there  is  an  incom- 
pleteness in  the  verb  inrupere  which  makes  this  easier.  It 
is  perhaps  nearer  the  truth  to  say  that,  in  the  case  of 
inrumpo  and  other  verbs  used  similarly,  they  were  at  first 
used  regularly  with  an  expressed  object,  and  that,  when 
they  came  to  be  used  absolutely,  an  object  was  instinctively 
supplied  in  thought.  This  explanation  suits  better  the  use 
of  such  verbs  as  sequor.  For  example,  Ann.  I.  50.  10: 
Caecina  cum  expeditis  cohortibus  praeire  et  obstantia  sil- 
varum  amoliri  iubetur :  legiones  modico  intervallo  sequun- 
tur.  Even  though  sequuntur  is  considered  to  be  used 
absolutely,  it  is  almost  impossible  not  to  supply  uncon- 
sciously an  eum. 

There  are  in  this  group,  cases  of  the  two  types  of  verbs 
cited  above — those  compounded  with  ad,  con  or  in  and 
regularly  followed  by  a  dative,  and  those  simple  verbs  like 
sequor  which,  also  by  their  meaning,  imply  a  reference  to 
what  has  preceded;  also  there  are  cases  of  comparatives 
and  words  which  imply  comparison,  such  as  alius;  and  of 
adverbs  which  express  sequence  or  in  other  ways  refer 
tacitly  to  the  preceding  clause. 

I.  The  connection  expressed  by  the  verbs  compounded 
with  ad,  con  and  so  forth,  approaches  more  closely  the 


114       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

cases  in  which  repetition  is  understood  than  do  the  other 
types  in  the  present  section :  that  they  are  really  on  the 
border  line  between  the  two  usages  will  be  clear  from  a 
few  examples  in  which  the  same  verb  is  used  now  with 
actual,  now  with  implied  repetition,  and  again  with  com- 
paratively little  of  the  element  of  repetition,  depending  for 
the  expression  of  connection  on  the  incomplete  meaning  of 
the  verb  by  itself. 

Repetition  of  some  one  of  the  regular  types  occurs  in  the 
following : 

Ann.  XVI.  17.  17:  exsolvit  venas,  scriptis  codicillis,  quibus 
grandem    pecuniam    in    Tigellinum    generumque    eius    Cossutianum 

Capitonem  erogabat,  quo  cetera  manerent.     Additur  codicillis 

se  quidem  mori  nullis  supplici  causis  etc.  Ann.  XIV.  26.  10:  At 
plerique  superbiam  Parthorum  perosi  datum  a  Romanis  regem  male- 
bant.  Additum  ei  praesidium  mille  legionarii  etc.  H.  II.  91.  16: 
nihil  novi  accidisse  respondit,  quod  duo  senatores  in  re  publica 
dissentirent ;  solitum  se  etiam  Thraseae  contra  dicere.  Inrisere 
plerique  impudentia  aemulationis ;    etc. 

With  such  cases,  the  following  are  comparable ;  for 
almost  the  same  element  of  repetition  is  present,  only  it  is 
implied  instead  of  being  expressed. 

Ann.  I.  24.  5 :  Et  cohortes  delecto  milite  supra  solitum  firmatae. 
Additur  magna  pars  praetoriani  equitis  etc.  (Cohortibus  is  readily 
understood.)  Ann.  VI.  47.  5:  Dein  multorum  amoribus  famosa 
Albucilla,  cui  matrimonium  cum  Satrio  Secundo  coniurationis  indice 
fuerat,  defertur  inpietatis  in  principem;  conectebantur  ut  conscii  et 
adulteri  eius  Cn.  Domitius,  Vibius  Marsus,  L.  Arruntius.  H.  III. 
86.  5 :  studia  exercitus  raro  cuiquam  bonis  artibus  quaesita  perinde 
adfuere  quam  huic  per  ignaviam.  Inerat  tamen  simplicitas  ac 
liberalitas,  quae,  ni  adsit  modus,  in  exitium  vertuntur. 

Even  in  such  examples  as  those  just  cited  the  incomplete- 
ness of  the  verb  meaning  has  an  influence  in  making  the 
connection  clear  although  repetition  is  distinctly  implied. 
In  the  following  cases  the  proportion  of  influence  is 
reversed,  the  element  of  repetition  becoming  more  obscure : 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.        115 

H.  IV.  70.  8:  Atque  interim  unaetvicensima  legio  Vindonissa, 
Sextilius  Felix  cum  auxiliariis  cohortibus  per  Raetiam  inrupere; 
accessit  ala  Singularium,  excita  olim  a  Vitellio,  deinde  in  partes 
Vespasiani  transgressa.  Praeerat  lulius  Briganticus  sorore  Civilis 
genitus  etc.  (This  case  is  interesting  because  of  the  two  instances 
of  the  present  type  of  connection.  The  accessit  is  the  better 
example  because  praeerat,  referring  so  obviously  to  ala  in  the  pre- 
ceding sentence,  shows  much  more  of  the  element  of  repetition.) 
Ann.  I.  19.  10,  after  the  indirect  quotation  of  a  speech  by  Blaesus : 
Adclamavere  ut  filius  Blaesi  tribunus  legatione  ea  fungeretur  etc. 
Ann.  II.  70.  7:  Componit  epistulas,  quis  amicitiam  ei  renuntiabat: 
addunt  plerique  iussum  provincia  decedere.  Ann.  XII.  8.  3 :  Calvina 
soror  eius  Italia  pulsa  est.  Addidit  Claudius  sacra  ex  legibus  Tulli 
regis  piaculaque  apud  lucum  Dianae  per  pontifices  danda  etc.  Ann. 
XI.  9.  4:  Nee  enim  restitere  Armenii,  fuso  qui  proelium  ausus  erat 
Demonacte  praefecto.  Paululum  cunctationis  attulit  rex  minoris 
Armeniae  Cotys,  versis  illuc  quibusdam  procerum  etc.  D.  17.  10; 
Statue  sex  et  quinquaginta  annos,  quibus  mox  divus  Augustus  rem 
publicam  rexit;  adice  Tiberii  tres  et  viginti  etc.  Ag.  22.  3:  Qua 
formidine  territi  hostes  quamquam  conflictatum  saevis  tempestati- 
bus  exercitum  lacessere  non  ausi ;  ponendisque  insuper  castellis 
spatium  fuit.  Adnotabant  periti  non  alium  ducem  opportunitates 
locorum  sapientius  legisse  etc.  H.  III.  46.  9 :  lamque  castra 
legionum  excindere  parabant,  ni  Mucianus  sextam  legionem 
opposuisset,  Cremonensis  victoriae  gnarus,  ac  ne  externa  moles 
utrimque  ingrueret,  si  Dacus  Germanusque  diversi  inrupissent. 
Adfuit,  ut  saepe  alias,  fortuna  populi  Romani  etc.  Ann.  XIII.  16. 
8 :  f  rigida  in  aqua  adf  unditur  venenum,  quod  ita  cunctos  eius  artus 
pervasit,  ut  vox  pariter  et  spiritus  raperentur.  Trepidatur  a  cir- 
cumstantibus  etc.  Ann.  II.  33.  3  :  decretumque  ne  vasa  auro  solida 
ministrandis  cibis  fierent,  ne  vestis  serica  viros  foedaret.  Excessit 
Fronto  ac  postulavit  modum  argento,  supellectili,  f  amiliae :  etc. 
Ann.  II.  72.  5 :  Neque  multo  post  extinguitur,  ingenti  luctu 
provinciae  et  circumiacentium  populorum.  Indoluere  exterae 
nationes  regesque  etc.  Ag.  39.  i  :  Hunc  rerum  cursum  quamquam 
nulla  verborum  iactantia  epistulis  Agricolae  auctum,  ut  Domitiano 
moris  erat,  fronte  laetus,  pectore  anxius  excepit.  Inerat  conscientia 
derisui  fuisse  nuper  falsum  e  Germanis  triumphum  etc.  (This 
example  is  not  good  because  of  the  obvious  implication  of  an  ei  in 
the  second  sentence.  This  is  true  of  all  the  examples  in  which 
forms  of  inesse  are  used.)  Ann.  I.  77.  4:  Actum  de  ea  seditione 
apud  patres  dicebanturque  sententiae,  ut  praetoribus  ius  virgarum 
in  histriones  esset.  Intercessit  Haterius  Agrippa  tribunus  plebei 
etc.     H.  III.  31.  20:    Sed  ubi  Caecina consul  incessit,  exarsere 


ii6       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

victores:    superbiam  saevitiamque etiam  perfidiam  obiectabant. 

Obstitit  Antonius  datisque  defensoribus  ad  Vespasianum  dimisit. 
Ann.  III.  2.  3 :  Igitur  tribunorum  centurionumque  umeris  cineres 
portabantur;  praecedebant  incompta  signa,  versi  fasces;  etc. 
G.  43.  13 :  Apud  Naharvalos  antiquae  religionis  lucus  ostenditur. 
Praesidet  sacerdos  muliebri  ornatu  etc.  (This  is  another  case  in 
which  the  element  of  repetition  predominates,  as  it  does  in  most 
of  the  cases  with  verbs  compounded  with  prae.)     Ann.  III.  30.  7: 

Atque    ille Maecenatem    aemulatus    sine    dignitate    senatoria 

multos  triumphahum  consulariumque  potentia  anteiit,  diversus  a 
veterum  instituto  per  cultum  et  munditias  copiaque  et  afluentia  luxu 
propior.  Suberat  tamen  vigor  animi  etc.  Ann.  XIV.  20.  17,  after 
an  account  of  murmurings  against  innovations  of  Nero:  Quid 
superesse,  nisi  ut  corpora  quoque  nudent  et  caestus  adsumant  easque 
pugnas  pro  militia  et  armis  meditentur? 

One  case  with  a  verb  compounded  with  ah  furnishes  a 

parallel  to  these:    Ann.  III.  2.  11 :     Consules et  sen- 

atus  ac  magna  pars  populi  viani  conplevere,  disiecti  et  ut 
cuique  libitum  flentes :   aberat  quippe  adulatio  etc. 

It  is  perfectly  clear  from  the  preceding-  cases  that  no  dis- 
tinct line  can  be  drawn  between  cases  in  which  an  element 
of  repetition  expresses  the  connection  and  others  in  which 
it  is  expressed  by  the  incomplete  meaning  of  a  verb.  Both 
elements  are  present  in  all  the  cases  although  one  is  some- 
times more  prominent,  sometimes  the  other.  To  a  certain 
extent  the  two  are  really  nothing  more  than  different  ways 
of  looking  at  the  same  thing.  For  the  examples  cited  above 
are  special  cases  of  connection  by  implied  repetition,  in 
which  certain  verbs  have  been  for  so  long  regularly  used 
without  an  expressed  object  that  the  object  is  only  vaguely 
understood  and  the  verb  itself  comes  to  have  a  connecting 
force  by  virtue  of  its  general  reference  to  the  preceding 
clause.  But  when  this  usage  is  thus  developed  it  is  prac- 
tically a  new  means  of  expressing  connection,  though  often 
showing  clearly  its  close  relation  to  the  other. 

Of  the  same  sort  is  the  connection  expressed  by  sequor. 
If  this  verb  were  less  often  used  absolutely,  the  object 
would  always  be  expressed  or  implied.  As  it  is,  the  abso- 
lute use  is  so  common  that  there  is  only  a  vague  understand- 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       117 

ing-  of  an  object;  there  is,  rather,  a  general  reference  to 
what  has  preceded.  One  example  in  which  the  object  was 
pretty  clearly  implied  has  already  been  quoted.  Others,  in 
which  this  is  not  so,  are: 

Ann.  III.  52.  I,  a  paragraph  opening:  C.  Sulpicius  D.  Haterius 
consules  sequuntur.  Ann.  I.  58.  11:  testis  ilia  nox,  mihi  utinam 
novissima !  Quae  secuta  sunt,  defleri  magis  quam  defendi  possunt. 
Ann.  XIV.  18.  11:  Nero  probata  Strabonis  sententia,  se  nihilo 
minus  subvenire  sociis  et  usurpata  concedere  rescripsit.  Sequuntur 
virorum  inlustrium  mortes  etc.  H.  III.  2.  27:  lam  reseratam 
Italiam,  impulsas  Vitelii  res  audietis.  luvabit  sequi  et  vestigiis 
vincentis  insistere. 

Such  cases  are  not  at  all  numerous.  A  special  interest 
attaches  to  them  because  of  the  idea  of  sequence  which 
the  meaning  of  the  verb  always  gives,  and  this  throws 
some  light  on  the  nature  of  the  connection  which  they 
express.  The  example  from  Ann.  III.  52.  i,  C.  Sulpicius 
D.  Haterius  consules  sequuntur,  might  be  expressed :  Tunc 
consules  C.  Sulpicius  D.  Haterius  fiebantur,  or  Proximi  con- 
sules C.  Sulpicius  D.  Haterius  erant.  The  sense  and  the 
relation  with  what  preceded  would  be  the  same.  This  is 
further  illustrated  by  Ag.  21.  i  :  Sequens  hiems  saluberri- 
mis  consiliis  absumpta. 

The  use  of  respondeo  and  other  verbs  or  verbal  phrases 
with  similar  meaning  is  slightly  different.  These  too  must, 
because  of  their  meaning,  refer  to  something  that  has  pre- 
ceded, but  when  verbs  of  this  type  are  used,  it  is  no  longer 
the  omission  and  tacit  understanding  of  an  object  which 
gives  rise  to  the  element  of  connection  but  this  is  inherent 
in  the  meaning  of  the  verb  or  verbal  phrase  itself.  A  verb 
meaning  "to  answer"  cannot  be  used  without  suggesting 
something  to  which  answer  is  made.  This  might,  however, 
be  readily  expressed,  by  ei,  ctii,  illis,  ad  id  and  the  like  as 
the  case  might  demand,  and  Ann.  XIV.  55,  i,  has  such  an 
expression :  Ad  quae  Nero  sic  ferme  respondit  etc.  So 
even  these  cases  are  not  without  a  suggestion  of  repetition. 
Examples  are: 


ii8       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

Ann.  II.  30.  16:  Ob  quae  posterum  diem  reus  petivit  domumque 
digressus  extremas  preces  P.  Quirinio  propinquo  suo  ad  principem 
mandavit.  Responsum  est  ut  senatum  rogaret.  Ann.  II.  46.  20: 
misitque  legates  ad  Tiberium  oraturos  auxilia.  Responsum  est  non 
iure  eum  adversus  Cheruscos  arma  Romana  invocare,  qui  pugnantis 
in  eundem  hostem  Romanes  nulla  ope  iuvisset.  D.  10.  33 :  medi- 
tatus  videris  etiam  elegisse  personam  notabilem  et  cum  auctoritate 
dicturam.  Sentio  quid  responderi  possit  etc.  H.  IV.  21.  3:  cunctos 
qui  aderant  in  verba  Vespasiani  adigit  mittitque  legatos  ad  duas 
legiones,  quae  priore  acie  pulsae  in  Vetera  castra  concesserant,  ut 
idem  sacramentum  acciperent.  Redditur  responsum :  neque  pro- 
ditoris  neque  hostium  se  consiliis  uti;  etc.  Ann.  II.  65.  12: 
Thraciaque  omni  potitus  scripsit  ad  Tiberium  structas  sibi  insidias, 
praeventum  insidiatorem ;  simul  bellum  adversus  Bastarnas 
Scythasque  praetendens  novis  peditum  et  equitum  copiis  sese  firma- 
bat.  MoUiter  rescriptum,  si  fraus  abesset,  posse  eum  innocentiae 
fidere.  Ann.  I.  76.  3 :  Igitur  censuit  Asinius  Gallus  ut  libri 
Sibullini  adirentur.     Renuit  Tiberius,  etc. 

2.  The  word  in  which  Hes  the  element  of  incompleteness 
may  be,  instead  of  a  verb,  either  an  adjective  or  adverb  in 
the  comparative  degree.  The  fact  of  its  being  in  the  com- 
parative shows  by  itself  that  the  first  sentence  is  thought 
of  when  the  second  is  written ;  it  is  a  tacit  reference  to  the 
first.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  as  true  in  the  present  class 
as  in  the  preceding  that  almost  always  there  is  present 
an  element  of  repetition,  usually  implied  but  sometimes 
expressed:  in  the  case  of  a  comparative  adjective,  some 
noun  of  the  first  sentence  is  understood  with  it  even  if  none 
is  expressed ;  in  the  case  of  an  adverb,  some  verb.  A  very 
simple  case  of  implied  repetition  with  a  comparative  is  fur- 
nished by  Ann,  XIII.  39.  5 :  et  Corbulo,  ne  inritum  bellum 
traheretur  utque  Armenios  ad  sua  defendenda  cogeret, 
excindere  parat  castella,  sibique  quod  validissimum  in  ea 
praefectura,  cognomento  Volandum,  sumit;  minora  Cor- 
nelio  Flacco  legato  et  Insteio  Capitoni  castrorum  praefecto 
mandat.  Castella  is  obviously  understood  with  the  minora 
and  in  this  particular  case  there  is  distinct  contrast  (between 
validissinwni  and  minora)  as  well;  this  is  frequent  because 
of  the  meaning  of  the  comparative. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.        119 

The  cases  in  which  the  comparative  stands  in  agreement 
with  a  noun  which  virtually  repeats  some  element  of  mean- 
ing from  the  first  sentence,  are  really  a  special  type  of 
repetition  in  which  this  element  of  incompleteness  plays  a 
part.     Examples  are : 

Ann.  III.  43.  I,  after  a  description  of  a  revolt  among  two  German 
tribes  other  than  the  Aeduans :  Apud  Aeduos  maior  moles  exorta, 
quanto  civitas  opulentior  et  comprimendi  procul  praesidium.  H.  I. 
37.  22:  Septem  a  Neronis  fine  menses  sunt,  et  iam  plus  rapuit  Icelus 
quam  quod  Polycliti  et  Vatinii  et  Tigellini  perdiderunt.  Minora 
avaritia  ac  licentia  grassatus  esset  T.  Vinius,  si  ipse  imperasset: 
etc.  H.  II.  3.  I  :  Conditorem  templi  regem  Aeriam  vetus  memoria, 
quidam  ipsius  deae  nomen  id  perhibent.  Fama  recentior  tradit  a 
Cinyra  sacratum  etc.  H.  III.  53.  11:  Casum  Cremonae  bello 
inputandum :  maiore  damno,  plurium  urbium  excidiis  veteres 
civium  discordias  rei  publicae  stetisse.  H.  I.  67.  i,  following  the 
account  of  Valens'  depredations :  Plus  praedae  ac  sanguinis  per 
Caecinam  haustum.  H.  V.  21,  i,  following  the  account  of  two 
doubtful  attacks :    Plus  discriminis  apud  Grinnes  Vadamque. 


There  is  often  scarcely  less  of  the  element  of  repetition 
in  the  use  of  the  neuter  plural  of  a  comparative  standing 
for  a  noun ;   this  is  clear  from  the  following  examples : 

H.  III.  24.  8:  Haec,  ut  quosque  accesserat;  plura  ad  tertianos, 
veterum  recentiumque  admonens  etc.  H.  II.  47.  15 :  Nee  diu 
moremur,  ego  incolumitatem  vestram,  vos  constantiam  meam. 
Plura  de  extremis  loqui  pars  ignaviae  est.  Ann.  I.  13.  7:  M'  Lepi- 
dum  dixerat,  capacem  sed  aspernantem,  Galium  Asinium  avidum 
et  minoram,  L.  Arruntium  non  indignum  et,  si  casus  daretur 
ausurum.  De  prioribus  consentitur,  pro  Arruntio  quidam  Cn. 
Pisonem    tradidere;     etc.     Ann.    III.    63.    6:    ceteros    obscuris    ob 

vetustatem   initiis  niti.     Nam   Zmyrnaeos   oraculum   Apollinis 

Tenios  eiusdem  carmen  referre Propiora  Sardianos  :    Alex- 

andri  victoris  id  donum.  Ann.  I.  52.  4 :  Rettulit  tamen  ad  senatum 
de  rebus  gestis  multaque  de  virtute  eius  memoravit,  magis  in 
speciem  verbis  adornata  quam  ut  penitus  sentire  crederetur. 
Paucioribus  Drusum  et  finem  Illyrici  motus  laudavit,  sed  intentior 
et  fida  oratione.  D.  5.  34,  after  a  long  speech  :  Plura  de  utilitate 
non  dico,  cui  parti  minime  contra  dicturum  Maternum  meum 
arbitror. 


I20       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

The  use  of  plures  in  contrast  with  pauci  and  similar 
words  to  repeat  part  of  some  group  already  mentioned  or 
implied,  has  already  been  treated  under  the  section  on  repe- 
tition. There  is,  however,  in  the  usage  this  same  compara- 
tive element ;  therefore  a  few  further  examples  are  given 
here: 

Ann.  III.  34.  i:  Paucorum  haec  adsensu  audita:  plures  obturba- 
bant,  etc.  H.  III.  6.  16:  Et  fuere  qui  se  statim  dederent:  plures 
abrupto  ponte  instanti  hosti  viam  abstulerunt.  H.  III.  61.  6:  Missus 
extemplo  Varus  cum  expedita  manu  paucos  repugnantium  inter- 
fecit;  plures  abiectis  armis  veniam  petivere.  H.  V.  13.  6:  Quae 
pauci  in  metum  trahebant:  pluribus  persuasio  inerat  antiquis 
sacerdotium  litteris  contineri  etc. 

In  a  few  cases,  adjectives  in  the  superlative  have  the  same 
incompleteness  if  taken  without  reference  to  the  preceding 
sentence : 

Ann.  XV.  68.  i,  after  the  account  of  the  death  of  Seneca  and 
Subrius  Flavus :  Proximum  constantiae  exemplum  Sulpicius  Asper 
centurio  praebuit,  etc.  Ann.  VI.  42.  i,  after  the  reports  of  other 
states :  Plurimum  adulationis  Seleucenses  induere,  etc.  Ann.  XV. 
60,  I,  after  the  account  of  Piso's  death:  Proximam  necem  Plautii 
Laterani  consulis  designati  Nero  adiungit,  etc.  H.  III.  29.  i : 
Acerrimum  tertiae  septimaeque  legionum  certamen ;    etc. 

The  following  examples  of  the  similar  use  of  adverbs 
show  the  same  predominance  of  repetition  and  contrast  in 
the  verbs  of  the  sentences : 

Ann.  I.  43.  I :  Cur  enim  primo  contionis  die  ferrum  illud,  quod 
pectori  meo  infigere  parabam,  detraxistis,  o  improvidi  amici? 
Melius  et  amantius  qui  gladium  offerebat.  (The  fact  that  the  verb 
is  implied  in  a  general  way  from  the  first  sentence  is  an  important 
element  in  the  connection  in  this  case.)  Ann.  III.  69.  4:  Nam  a 
legibus  delicta  puniri :  quanto  fore  mitius  in  ipsos,  melius  in  socios, 
provideri  ne  peccaretur?  H.  I.  16.  19:  Nero  a  pessimo  quoque 
semper  desiderabitur :  mihi  ac  tibi  providendum  est,  ne  etiam  a 
bonis  desideretur.  Monere  diutius  neque  temporis  huius,  et 
impletum  est  omne  consilium,  si  te  bene  elegi.  H.  IV.  8.  4:  Nihil 
evenisse,  cur  antiquitus  instituta  exolescerent  aut  principis  honor  in 
cuiusquam  contumeliam   verteretur;    sufficere  omnes   obsequio.     Id 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.        121 

magis  vitandum,  ne  pervicacia  quorundam  inritaretur  animus  novo 
principatu  suspensiis,  etc.  Ann.  XII.  17.  2:  Quod  aspernati  sunt 
victores,  quia  trucidare  deditos  saevum,  tantam  multitudinem  cus- 
todia  cingere  arduum :  belli  potius  iure  caderent,  datumque  militi- 
bus,  qui  scalis  evaserant,  signum  caedis.  Ann.  XIII.  55.  15 :  Solem 
inde  suspiciens  et  cetera  sidera  vocans  quasi  coram  interrogabat, 
vellentne  contueri  inane  solum :  potius  mare  superf underent 
adversus  terrarum  ereptores.  H.  IV.  56.  3 :  vicit  ratio  parcendi,  ne 
sublata  spe  veniae  pertinaciam  accenderent :  adliciendos  potius  in 
societatem.  H.  II.  88.  12 :  In  urbe  tamen  trepidatum  praecurrenti- 
bus  passim  militibus ;  forum  maxime  petebant,  cupidine  visendi 
locum,  in  quo  Galba  iacuisset. 

The  following-  cases  of  this  same  usage,  having  a  nega- 
tive with  both  adverbs  and  adjectives,  are  no  different  but 
serve  as  further  illustrations : 

Ann.  II.  34.  7,  following  the  account  of  Piso's  angry  departure 
from  the  senate :  Haud  minus  liberi  doloris  documentum  idem  Piso 
mox  dedit  vocata  in  ius  Urgulania  etc.  Ann.  I.  68.  i,  after  an 
account  of  the  Romans'  indecision :  Haud  minus  inquies  Germanus 
spe,  cupidine  et  diversis  ducum  sententiis  agebat  etc.  Ann.  XIII. 
I.  12:    Ab  his  proconsuli  venenum  inter  epulas  datum  est  apertius, 

quam  ut  fallerent.     Nee  minus  properato  Narcissus ad  mortem 

agitur  etc.  Ann.  i.  19.  i,  after  a  speech  by  Blaesus:  Aggerebatur 
nihilo  minus  caespes  iamque  pectori  usque  adcreverat,  cum  tandem 
pervicacia  victi  inceptum  omisere. 

3.  The  words  alins,  (ccterus)  and  reliquus  have  already 
been  discussed  as  they  appear  in  several  special  uses.  The 
very  prominent  element  of  contrast  in  their  meaning  makes 
them  conspicuous  cases  of  connection  by  means  of  con- 
trast. But  even  in  the  examples  which  show  prominent  con- 
trast in  these  words,  there  is  an  underlying  incompleteness 
in  their  meaning  which  by  itself  turns  the  attention  to  what 
has  preceded  just  as  do  certain  verbs  like  respondeo  and 
adjectives  in  the  comparative  degree.  In  many  cases  this 
incompleteness  of  meaning  is  the  chief  element  of  connec- 
tion although  there  is  probably  always  some  suggestion  of 
contrast.  The  examples  noted  in  the  first  chapter,  in  which 
alius  or  (ceterus)  stood  in  the  first  sentence  and  established 


122       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

a  connection  with  the  second  by  anticipation,  illustrate  well 
the  incompleteness  of  meaning-  in  these  words.  By  them- 
selves they  are  unsatisfactory,  and  when  there  is  nothing 
in  the  preceding-  sentence  to  point  their  meaning,  the  mind 
instinctively  looks  forward  and  retains  the  words  until 
something-  in  the  following  clause  completes  the  connection 
thus  anticipated.  In  the  following  examples  there  is 
always  something  in  the  first  sentence  to  which  the  alius 
or  (ceterus)  refers,  but  which  is  not  anticipatory:  the 
first  clause  or  sentence  is  quite  complete  in  itself.  As 
in  the  cases  with  comparatives,  there  are  frequently  with 
the  incomplete  words,  nouns  either  actually  or  virtually 
repeated  from  the  preceding  sentence: 

H.  II.  74.  6 :  tertiam  legionem,  quod  e  Suria  in  Moesiam  transisset, 
suam  numerabat;  ceterae  lUyrici  legiones  secuturae  sperabantur 
etc.  H.  V.  II.  18,  after  an  account  of  the  outer  walls  of  Jerusalem 
(using  muri)  :  Alia  intus  moenia  regiae  circumiecta,  conspicuoque 
fastigio  turris  Antonia,  in  honorem  M.  Antonii  ab  Herode  appellata. 
H.  V.  22.  5 :  Prima  caedes  astu  adiuta :  incisis  tabernaculorum 
funibus  suismet  tentoriis  coopertos  trucidabant.  Aliud  agmen  tur- 
bare  classem,  inicere  vincla,  trahere  puppis ;  etc.  Ag.  34.  8 :  sic 
acerrimi  Britannorum  iam  pridem  ceciderunt,  reliquus  est  numerus 
ignavorum  et  metuentium.  G.  25.  3 :  Frumenti  modum  dominus  aut 
pecoris  aut  vestis  ut  colono  iniungit,  et  servus  hactenus  paret : 
cetera  domus  officia  uxor  ac  liberi  exsequuntur. 

When  no  noun  is  expressed  the  connection  is  marked  less 
by  repetition  and  more  by  the  incompleteness  of  the  alius, 
(ceterus)  or  reliquus.    Contrast  is  still  prominent. 

Ann.  IV.  21.  10:  Quod  ut  atrocius  vero  tramissum;  ceterorum, 
quae  multa  curnulabantur,  receptus  est  reus,  neque  peractus  ob 
mortem  opportunam.  Ann.  IV.  51.  17:  Et  proxima  sponte 
incolarum  recepta :  reliquis,  quo  minus  vi  aut  obsidio  subigerentur, 
praematura  montis  Haemi  et  saeva  hiems  subvenit.  Ann.  XIV.  35. 
8:  Adesse  tamen  deos  iustae  vindictae;  cecidisse  legionem,  quae 
proelium  ausa  sit;  ceteros  castris  occultari  aut  fugam  circumspicere. 
Ann.  XV.  50.  8:  Natalis  particeps  ad  omne  secretum  Pisoni  erat, 
ceteris  spes  ex  novis  rebus  petebatur.  H.  II.  91.  18:  Inrisere 
plerique   inpudentiam   aemulationis ;    aliis   id   ipsum   placebat,   quod 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.        123 

neminem  ex  praepotentibus,  sed  Thraseam  ad  exemplar  verae 
gloriae  legisset.  H.  IV.  i.  11 :  nee  deerat  egentissimus  quisque  e 
plebe  et  pessimi  servitiorum  prodere  ultro  dites  dominos,  alii  ab 
amicis  monstrabantur.  H.  IV.  81.  7:  precebaturque  principem,  ut 
genas  et  oculorum  orbes  dignaretur  respergere  oris  excremento. 
Alius  manum  aeger  eodem  deo  auctore,  ut  pede  ac  vestigio  Caesaris 
calcaretur,  orabat.  Ag.  11.  17;  Quod  Britannorum  olim  victis 
evenit:    ceteri   manent,   quales   Galli   fuerunt.     G.    i.    i:     Germania 

omnis  a  Gallis fluminibus,  a  Sarmatis montibus  separatur : 

cetera  Oceanus  ambit,  etc.  G.  13,  6 :  Insignis  nobilitas  aut  magna 
patrum  merita  principis  dignationem  etiam  adulescentulis  adsignant: 
ceteri  robustioribus  ac  iam  pridem  probatis  adgregantur,  nee  rubor 
inter  comites  adspici. 

Two  more  adjectives  are  used  a  few  times  by  Tacitus 
with  this  same  connective  force  by  virtue  of  their  meaning. 
These  are  par  and  similis  and  the  examples  of  their  use  are 
as  follows : 

Ann.  I.  SZ-  6:  Imperium  adeptus  extorrem,  infamem  et  post 
interfectum  Postumum  Agrippam  omnis  spei  egenam  inopia  ac  tabe 
longa  peremit,  obscuram  fore  necem  longinquitate  exilii  ratus.  Par 
causa  saevitiae  in  Sempronium  Gracchum  etc.  Ann.  XIII.  39.  23 : 
Et  imbelle  vulgus  sub  corona  venumdatum,  reliqua  praeda  victori- 
bus  cessit.  Pari  fortuna  legatus  ac  praefectus  usi  sunt,  etc.  Ann. 
III.  36.  13,  after  a  speech  of  Gaius  Cestius :  Haud  dissimilia  alii  et 
quidam  atrociora  circumstrepebant,  etc.  D.  2>7-  34 :  Plures  tamen 
bonos  proeliatores  bella  quam  pax  ferunt.  Similis  eloquentiae  con- 
dicio.  G.  45.  30:  Suionibus  Sitonum  gentes  continuantur.  Cetera 
similes  uno  differunt,  quod  femina  dominatur  etc. 


Further  examples  of  words  whose  incompleteness  of 
meaning-  furnishes  the  connection  between  their  own  sen- 
tence and  the  preceding  one,  will  be  found  in  the  section 
following,  on  connections  made  by  means  of  adverbs.  They 
are  not  essentially  different  from  the  cases  of  incomplete 
words  noted  in  the  present  section ;  but  because  the  adver- 
bial connectives  were  more  fixed,  like  the  conjunctional, 
they  are  all  grouped  together  and  the  various  types  of 
connection  used  with  them  are  noted  in  each  case. 


124       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

It  is  clear  from  the  examples  quoted  already  and  also 
from  those  with  adverbs  quoted  in  the  next  section,  that 
this  present  means  of  connection,  lying  in  the  meaning  of 
some  particular  word,  incomplete  by  itself,  requires  almost 
always  some  further  means  to  reinforce  it.  This  does  not, 
however,  mean  that  there  is  no  such  type  of  connection: 
in  many  cases,  the  fact  that  the  words  whose  meaning  is 
incomplete  in  itself  are  adjectives,  makes  at  least  implied 
repetition  almost  necessary ;  in  the  cases  with  verbs  like 
respondeo  there  is  less  use  of  supplementary  means  of  con- 
nection. There  are  plenty  of  such  cases  and  plenty  of  the 
others  in  which  the  supplementary  means  are  far  from 
prominent,  to  establish  the  type.  The  cases  with  such 
adverbs  as  interim  or  ultra,  alias  or  ex  diver  so,  deinde  or 
postremum  will  make  it  more  obvious. 


The  use  of  adverbs  and  of  adverbial  phrases  to  express 
connection  between  sentences  is  not  fundamental.  There 
are  almost  always  present  some  underlying  means  of  con- 
nection such  as  repetition  or  contrast  or  rapidity  of  narra- 
tive, which  the  adverbs  serve  only  to  supplement.  In  this 
the  adverbs  are  like  the  conjunctions :  they  are  called  into 
use  to  point  connections  which,  in  the  written  language, 
are  not  clear,  but  (again  like  the  conjunctions)  they  come 
to  be  used  in  many  cases  where  they  are  not  absolutely 
necessary  or  even  necessary  at  all,  so  that  in  Tacitus  they 
are  in  themselves  a  fixed  means  of  connection  as  are  the 
conjunctional  uses.  Since  this  is  so,  it  is  convenient  to 
group  all  the  adverbial  uses  together  and  point  out  in  each 
case  the  underlying  connection  which  the  adverb  or  adver- 
bial phrase  supplements.  The  adverb  itself  is  more  nearly 
the  sole  connective  force  in  the  cases  of  those  adverbs, 
noted  in  the  last  section,  whose  meaning,  as  they  stand 
alone,  is  incomplete.     For  example,  Ag.  5.  8,  following  the 


Connection  Expressed  hi  the  Second  Clause.       125 

notice  of  Agricola's  first  service  in  Britain:  Non  sane  alias 
exercitatior  magisque  in  ambiguo  Britannia  fuit  etc.  The 
connection  is  made  in  the  alias  and  only  slightly  reinforced 
by  the  use  of  the  word  Britannia,  which  is  repeated  from 
some  few  sentences  back.  In  a  case  with  turn,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  adverb  merely  points  out  a  connection  really  clear 
without  it;  as  in  H.  I.  11.  2:  ita  visum  expedire,  provin- 
ciam domui  retinere.  Regebat  tum  Tiberius  Alex- 
ander, eiusdem  nationis.  The  implied  object  of  regebat, 
repeated  from  the  preceding  sentence,  makes  the  connection 
clear  without  the  additional  tum. 

Of  the  various  types  of  adverbs  used  in  Tacitus,  there 
are  first  of  all  those  which  merely  mark  the  progress  of 
the  narrative,  usually  employed  in  the  more  obscure  of  those 
cases  in  which  the  rapidity  or  clearness  of  the  narrative 
alone  would  ordinarily  make  the  connection.  These  may 
be  either  literally  temporal,  like  primum,  deinde  and  the  like, 
used  in  narrative,  or  figuratively  so  in  the  cases  in  which 
these  adverbs  are  used  to  mark  the  progress  of  an  argu- 
ment. Second,  there  are  the  demonstrative  adverbs  whose 
connective  force  is  essentially  that  of  repetition.  Third,  there 
are  the  adverbs  whose  meaning  is  incomplete  without  refer- 
ence to  what  has  preceded,  such  as  interim,  insuper,  ultra, 
cetera,  alias,  or  pariter.  Fourth,  there  are  adverbial  phrases. 
These  are  for  the  most  part  temporal,  taking  such  form 
as  vesperescante  die,  isdem  consulibus  or  eo  tempore.  But 
there  are  a  number,  such  as  haud  aliud,  ex  diverso  and  the 
like,  which  depend  for  their  connective  force  on  the  incom- 
pleteness of  their  meaning.  These  various  phrases  do  not 
form  a  class  by  themselves  but  are  classified  with  the  simple 
adverbs  of  similar  type.  Finally,  there  is  a  small  group  of 
adverbs  which  are  used  to  mark  sentences  in  some  way 
explanatory  of  the  preceding  ones.  These  are  certe,  nimi- 
rum,  quippe,  scilicet,  and  sine  dubio.  They  do  not  in  them- 
selves make  connection,  but  emphasize  or  point  out  the 
explanatory  nature  of  the  sentence  in  which  they  stand. 
The  use  of  adverbs  is  comparatively   familiar,  nearly  as 


126       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

much  so  as  that  of  conjunctions.     Few  cases  are  therefore 
cited  except  in  support  of  particular  points. 

I.  The  first  group  of  adverbs  and  adverbial  phrases  com- 
prises those  which  express  formally  the  connection  which  is 
felt  in  a  rapid  narrative ;  in  other  words,  mark  the  progress 
of  the  narrative  without  being  absolutely  essential  to  the  con- 
nection. Numerous  examples  were  given  in  the  first  chapter 
in  which  the  rapidity  of  the  narrative  was  the  sole  means 
of  sentence  connection  and  in  which  this  was  adequate. 
In  the  present  group  the  essential  element  of  connection  is 
not  changed ;  precision  is  added.  In  English,  the  sentence, 
"First  he  went  down  stairs,  next  opened  the  door,  then 
went  out,"  is  not  very  different  from  "He  went  down 
stairs,  opened  the  door,  and  went  out."  There  is  this  dif- 
ference between  the  two,  that  in  the  first  the  succession  of 
events  is  formally  and  accurately  expressed,  in  the  second 
it  is  not.  And  with  adverbs  used  to  a  great  extent  even 
when  they  are  not  necessary,  a  further  difference  is  felt; 
the  sentences  without  adverbs  suggest  greater  rapidity  of 
narrative.     Examples  of  this  use  of  adverbs  are : 

Ann.  II.  69.  3 :  Hinc  graves  in  Pisonem  contumeliae,  nee  minus 
acerba  quae  ab  illo  in  Caesarem  intentabantur.  Dein  Piso  abire 
Suria  statuit.  Mox  adversa  Germanici  valetudine  detentus,  ubi 
recreatum  accepit  votaque  pro  incolumitate  solvebantur,  admotas 
hostias,  sacrificalem  apparatum,  festam  Antiochensium  plebem  per 
lictores  proturbat.  Turn  Seleuciam  degreditur,  opperiens  aegritu- 
dinem,  quae  rursum  Germanico  acciderat.  Ann.  II.  52.  2 :  Is 
natione  Numida,  in  castris  Romanis  auxiliaria  stipendia  meritus, 
mox  deserter,  vagos  primum  et  latrociniis  suetos  ad  praedam  et 
raptus  congregare,  dein  more  militiae  per  vexilla  et  turmas  com- 
ponere,  postremo  non  inconditae  turbae,  sed  Musulamiorum  dux 
haberi.  H.  III.  61.  5:  Per  eos  cognitum  est  Interamnam  proximis 
campis  praesidio  quadringentorum  equitum  teneri.  Missus  extemplo 
Varus  cum  expedita  manu  paucos  repugnantium  interfecit;  plures 
abiectis  armis  veniam  petivere.  Ann.  XI.  22.  15  :  Creatique  primum 
Valerius  Potitus  et  Aemilius  Mamercus  sexagensimo  tertio  anno 
post  Tarquinios  exactos,  ut  rem  militarem  comitarentur.  Dein 
gliscentibus  negotiis  duo  additi,  qui  Romae  curarent:  mox  dupH- 
catus  numerus,  stipendiaria  iam  Italia  et  accedentibus  provinciarum 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.        127 

vectigalibus :  post  lege  Sullae  viginti  creati  supplendo  senatui,  cui 
iudicia  tradiderat.  (The  post  in  this  example  is  of  another  type  of 
adverb,  that  in  which  the  meaning  by  its  incompleteness  forces  a 
reference  to  the  preceding  sentence.)  H.  I.  38.  12:  Aperiri  deinde 
armamentarium  iussit.  Rapta  statim  arma  etc.  Ag.  8.  i,  following 
the  notice  of  Agricola's  appointment  to  the  command  of  the  twen- 
tieth legion :  Praeerat  time  Britanniae  Vettius  Bolanus  etc.  Ag. 
II.  IS:  Nam  Gallos  quoque  in  bellis  floruisse  accepimus;  mox 
segnitia  cum  otio  intravit,  amissa  virtute  pariter  ac  libertate.  G.  37. 
19:  nee  impune  C.  Marius  in  Italia,  divus  lulius  in  Gallia,  Drusus 
ac  Nero  et  Germanicus  in  suis  eos  sedibus  perculerunt:  mox 
ingentes  Gai  Caesaris  minae  in  ludibrium  versae.  Inde  otium, 
donee  occasione  discordiae  nostrae  et  civilium  armorum  expugnatis 
legionum  hibernis  etiam  Gallias  adfectavere;  ac  rursus  inde  pulsi 
proximis  temporibus  triumphati  magis  quam  victi  sunt. 

Of  the  many  adverbial  phrases  expressing-  time,  some 
belong-  to  the  present  category.  Others,  in  which  repeti- 
tion or  incompleteness  of  meaning  plays  the  chief  part  in 
making  the  connection,  fall  under  the  following  sections. 
Those  included  in  the  present  category  are  the  ones  which 
express  the  time  at  which  the  action  of  the  verb  takes  place 
and  so  mark  the  progress  of  the  narrative  as  did  the  adverbs 
above.  Frequently  these  phrases  are  in  the  ablative  absolute 
construction.  They  may  refer  to  long  stretches  of  time  and 
express  dates,  or  to  shorter  periods  and  mark  the  time  of 
day  and  the  like.  Occasionally  in  such  an  expression  as 
fine  anni  there  is  a  slight  element  of  repetition.  Examples 
are: 

Ann.  II.  12.  12 :  Penitus  noscendas  mentes,  cum  secreti  et  incus- 
toditi  inter  militaris  cibos  spem  aut  metum  proferrent.  Nocte 
coepta  egressus  augurali  per  occulta  et  vigilibus  ignara,  comite  uno, 
contectus  umeros  ferina  pelle,  adit  castrorum  vias  etc.  Later  in 
line  14  of  the  same  paragraph :  Tertia  f  erme  vigilia  adsultatum  est 
castris  etc.  H.  II.  44.  5  :  Vedium  Aquilam  tertiae  decumae  legionis 
legatum  irae  militum  inconsultus  pavor  obtulit.  Multo  adhuc  die 
vallum  ingressus  clamore  seditiosorum  et  fugacium  circumstrepitur. 
H.  II.  49i  9:  Vesperescante  die  sitim  haustu  gelidae  aquae  sedavit. 
Tum  adlatis  pugionibus  duobus  cum  utrumque  pertemptasset, 
alteram  capiti  subdidit.  Et  explorato  iam  profectos  amicos,  noctem 
quietam,    utque    adfirmatur,    non    insomnem    egit:     luce    prima    in 


128       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

f errum  pectore  incubuit.  H.  III.  19.  i,  after  an  account  of  a  battle : 
Inumbrante  vespera  universum  Flaviani  exercitus  robur  advenit. 
Ann.  III.  30.  I  :  Fine  anni  concessere  vita  insignes  viri  L.  Volusius 
et  Sallustius  Crispus.  Ann.  VI.  31.  i :  C.  Cestio  M.  Servilio  con- 
sulibus  nobiles  Parthi  in  urbem  venere,  ignaro  rege  Artabano.  Ann. 
XIII.  31.  I  :  Nerone  iterum  L.  Pisone  consulibus  pauca  memoria 
digna  evenere  etc.  H.  I.  90.  i :  Pridie  idus  Martias  commendata 
patribus  re  publica  reliquias  Neronianarum  sectionum  nondum  in 
fiscum  conversas  revocatis  ab  exilic  concessit,  etc.  (Compare,  for 
dates   H.   III.  67.  6,   and  H.   IV.   53-   5-)    H.   IV.  39.   i:    Kalendis 

lanuariis    in    senatu legatis    exercitibusque    ac    regibus    laudes 

gratesque  decretae ;  etc.  Ag.  24.  i  :  Quinto  expeditionum  anno 
nave  prima  transgressus  ignotas  ad  id  tempus  gentis  crebris  simul 
ac  prosperis  proeliis  domuit ;  etc.  Ag.  29.  i  :  Initio  aestatis 
Agricola  domestico  vulnere  ictus,  anno  ante  natum  filium  amisit. 

2.  The  second  ^roup  of  adverbial  connections  consists 
of  those  w^hich  express  the  connection  by  means  of  some 
type  of  repetition.  These  are  chiefly  the  demonstrative 
adverbs  and  the  phrases  containing-  demonstrative  words, 
but  the  group  also  includes  numerous  adverbial  phrases 
marking  some  definite  time  and  depending  for  connective 
force  on  repetition,  as,  for  example,  die  senatus.  The  regu- 
larly recognized  "subordinate"  clauses  of  time  with  cum, 
ubi,  quotiens  and  the  like,  are  also  illustrated  in  the  present 
paragraph  because  of  the  fact  that  the  large  majority  of 
such  clauses  show  repetition  of  one  type  or  another.  This 
does  not  refer  of  course  to  their  relation  to  their  so-called 
main  verb  but  to  the  preceding  sentence.  The  demonstra- 
tive adverbs  occurring  in  Tacitus  are  hie,  hue,  hinc,  adhuc, 
dehinc,  hactenus,  posthac,  eo,  eoqiie,  adeo,  ideo,  postea, 
interea,  inde,  delude,  perinde,  proinde,  ita,  illic,  illuc,  ibi, 
sic,  totidem,  utrimque,  utrobique.  The  adverbial  phrases 
are  too  numerous  to  cite;  they  include  such  phrases  as 
ad  id  tempus,  eadem  node,  isdem  diebus  or  usque  eo.  This 
usage  is  very  frequent  indeed.    Examples  are : 

Ann.  II.  69.  I :  At  Germanicus  Aegypto  remeans  cuncta,  quae 
apud  legiones  aut  urbes  iusserat,  abolita  vel  in  contrarium  versa 
cognoscit.     Hinc  graves  in  Pisonem  contumeliae,  nee  minus  acerba 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       129 

quae  ab  illo  in  Caesarem  intentabantur.  G.  28.  6:  Igitur  inter 
Hercyniam  silvam  Rhenumque  et  Moenum  amnes  Helvetii,  ulteriora 
Boii,  Gallica  utraque  gens,  tenuere.  Manet  adhuc  Boihaemi  nomen 
etc.  Ann.  IV.  74.  8:  Non  illi  tamen  in  urbem  aut  propinqua  urbi 
degressi  sunt;  satis  visum  omittere  insulam  et  in  proximo  Cam- 
paniae  aspici.  Eo  venire  patres,  eques,  magna  pars  plebis,  etc. 
Ann.  VI.  32.  I  :  Cupitum  id  Tiberio :  ornat  Phraaten  accingitque 
paternum  ad  fastigium,  destinata  retinens,  consiliis  et  astu  res 
externas  moliri,  arma  procul  habere.  Interea  cognitis  insidiis  Arta- 
banus  tardari  metu,  modo  cupidine  vindictae  inardescere.  Ann.  XI. 
24.  26:  Ac  tamen,  si  cuncta  bella  recenseas,  nullum  breviore  spatio 
quam  adversus  Gallos  confectum :  continua  inde  ac  fida  pax. 
Ann.  XII.  22.  10:  proin  publicatis  bonis  cederet  Italia.  Ita  quin- 
quagiens  sestertium  ex  opibus  immensis  exuli  relictum.  Ann.  XIV. 
4.  I :  Placuit  sollertia,  tempore  etiam  iuta,  quando  Quinquatruum 
festos  dies  apud  Baias  freouentabat.  Illuc  matrem  elicit,  etc.  Ann. 
XV.  57.  3:  At  illam  non  verbera,  non  ignes,  non  ira  eo  acrius 
torquentium,  ne  a  femina  spernerentur,  pervicere,  quin  obiecta 
denegaret.  Sic  primus  quaestionis  dies  contemptus.  H.  I.  27.  12 : 
Ibi  tres  et  viginti  speculatores  consalutatum  imperatorem  ac  pauci- 
tate  salutantium  trepidum  et  sellae  festinanter  impositum  strictis 
mucronibus  rapiunt;    totidem  ferme  milites  in  itinere  adgregantur, 

etc.     H.   II.   21.    13:    Vitelliani   pluteos   cratesque ,    Othoniani 

sudes  et  inmensas  lapidum  ac  plumbi  aerisque  moles expedi- 

unt.  Utrimque  pudor,  utrimque  gloria  et  diversae  exhortationes  etc. 
H.  IV.  28.  2:  Ille,  ut  cuique  proximum,  vastari  Ubios  Treverosque, 
et  aliam  manum  Mosam  amnem  transire  iubet,  ut  Menapios  et 
Morinos  et  extrema  Galliarum  quateret.  Actae  utrobique  praedae, 
infestius  in  Ubiis,  etc.  Ann.  VI.  27.  13,  after  an  account  of  the 
death  of  Aelius  Lamia :  Obiit  eodem  anno  et  M'.  Lepidus,  de  cuius 
moderatione  atque  sapientia  in  prioribus  libris  satis  conlocavi.  Ann. 
XI.  II.  i:  Isdem  consulibus  ludi  saeculares  octingentesimo  post 
Romam  conditam,  quarto  et  sexagensimo,  quam  Augustus  ediderat, 
spectati  sunt.  Ann.  XII.  28.  7  :  decretusque  Pomponio  triumphalis 
honos,  modica  pars  famae  eius  apud  posteros,  in  quis  carminum 
gloria  praecellit.  Per  idem  tempus  Vannius  Suebis  a  Druso  Caesare 
inpositus  pellitur  regno,  etc.  Ann.  XV.  35.  i  :  Eius  munus  fre- 
quentanti  Neroni  ne  inter  voluptates  quidem  a  sceleribus  cessabatur. 
Isdem  quippe  illis  diebus  Torquatus  Silanus  mori  adigitur,  quia 
super  luniae  familiae  claritudinem  divum  Augustum  abavum  fere- 
bat.     Ag.  28.  I :    Eadem  aestate  cohors  Usiporum memorabile 

facinus  ausa  est.  Ag.  41.  i :  Crebro  per  eos  dies  apud  Domitianum 
absens  accusatus,  absens  absolutus  est. 


130       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

A  number  of  adverbial  phrases  depend  for  the  expression 
of  connection  on  other  types  of  repetition  than  that  with  a 
demonstrative.  This  is  not  ordinarily  direct  repetition  of 
a  word  from  the  preceding  sentence,  but  a  word  either 
repeats  some  element  of  meaning  from  what  has  pre- 
ceded, or  else  actually  repeats  a  particular  word  from 
some  distance  back  in  the  narrative.  The  phrase  may  be 
merely  an  expansion  of  a  simple  ablative  of  time,  as  is  the 
case  with  die  niiptiarum  or  fine  anni,  or  it  may  be  an  abla- 
tive absolute,  one  of  the  words  being  a  repetition  from  what 
has  preceded.  These  have  all  been  treated  as  examples  of 
repetition,  which  is  their  fundamental  element  of  connection, 
but  as  phrases  they  have  adverbial  force  and  are  therefore 
further  illustrated  here.     Examples  are : 

Ann.  III.  II.  9:  Haud  alias  intentior  populus  plus  sibi  in  princi- 
pem  occultae  vocis  aut  suspicacis  silentii  permisit.  Die  senatus 
Caesar  orationem  habuit  meditato  temperamento.  Ann.  V.  il.  i : 
Exitu  anni  aucta  discordia  consulum  erupit.  (Cf.  eius  anni  prin- 
cipio  in  Ann.  XIII.  34.  9,  and  fine  anni  in  Ann.  III.  30.  i,  IV.  61.  i, 
VI.  14.  I,  etc.  etc.)  Ann.  XII.  8.  i :  Die  nuptiarum  Silanus  mortem 
sibi  conscivit  etc.  Ann.  XIII.  2.  15 :  Decreti  et  a  senatu  duo 
lictores,  flamonium  Claudiale,  simul  Claudio  censorium  funus  et 
mox  consecratio.  Die  funeris  laudationem  eius  princeps  exorsus 
est  etc.  (Compare  with  these  cases,  the  use  of  eo  die  cited  in  the 
last  section  and  such  an  expression  as  die  pacta  in  Ann.  XV.  28.  11; 
also  the  cases  on  the  border  line  between  the  present  category  and 
the  following  one:  postera  luce  (Ann.  XVI.  27.  i),  proximo  senatu 
(H.  IV.  44.  i)  and  the  like.  They  are  all  alike  in  having  present 
in  them  in  one  form  or  another  the  element  of  repetition.)  Ann.  XVI. 
6.  I  :  Post  finem  ludicri  Poppaea  mortem  obiit  etc.  Ann.  II.  2.  i : 
Post  finem  Phraatis  et  sequentium  regum  ob  internas  caedes  venere 
in  urbem  legati  a  primoribus  Parthis  etc.  Ann.  II.  22.  i,  following 
the  account  of  a  Roman  victory:  Laudatis  pro  contione  victoribus 
Caesar  congeriem  armorum  struxit  etc.  Ann.  III.  55.  i,  following 
the  quotation  of  Caesar's  letter :  Auditis  Caesaris  litteris,  remissa 
aedilibus  talis  cura ;  etc.  Ann.  III.  26.  14:  Sed  praecipuus  Servius 
Tullius  sanctor  legum  fuit,  quis  etiam  reges  obtemperarent.  Pulso 
Tarquinio  adversum  patrum  factiones  multa  populus  paravit  tuendae 
libertatis  et  firmandae  concordiae  etc.  (This  last  case  is  perhaps  the 
most  doubtful.    There  is  certainly  no  actual  repetition.    The  sense 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       131 

is  clear  only  as  the  name  of  Tarquinius  is  necessarily  associated  with 
the  mention  of  the  other  kings :  Romulus  has  been  named,  then 
Numa,  Tullus,  Ancus  and  finally  Servius  Tullius.  The  temporal 
connection  is  clear  but  it  is  due  to  association  rather  than  to  real 
repetition.) 

Very  frequently  the  recognized  time  clauses  with  cum, 
dum,  postquam,  quotiens,  ubi  and  ut,  serve  to  express  the 
connection  between  two  sentences.  Sometimes  there  is  very 
little  to  support  this  connection  as  in  G.  14.  i,  following-  an 
account  of  the  young  German's  first  assuming  arms :  Cum 
ventum  in  aciem,  turpe  principi  virtute  vinci,  turpe  comi- 
tatui  virtutem  principis  non  adaequare.  There  is  little  in 
this  sentence  outside  of  the  purely  temporal  connection  in 
the  cum  clause,  except  it  be  the  use  of  terms  all  in  the  same 
category,  to  connect  it  with  the  one  preceding.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  very  next  paragraph,  also  introduced  by  a 
temporal  clause,  opens  with  a  strong  contrast  to  reinforce 
the  connection :  Quotiens  bella  non  ineunt,  non  multum 
venatibus,  plus  per  otium  transigunt.  The  prevailing  means 
of  connection  in  such  clauses  is  repetition,  as  in  Ann.  I.  68. 
6:  Igitur  orta  die  proruunt  fossas,  iniciunt  crates,  summa 
valli  prensant,  raro  super  milite  et  quasi  ob  metum  defixo. 
Postquam  haesere  munimentis,  datur  cohortibus  signum 
cornuaque  ac  tubae  concinuere.  In  the  understood  subject 
of  the  haesere  and  more  concretely  in  the  munimentis  there 
is  repetition.     Further  examples  are: 

H.  III.  33.  16 :  Per  quadriduum  Cremona  sufficit.  Cum  omnia 
sacra  profanaque  in  ignem  considerent,  solum  Alefitis  templum 
stetit  ante  moenia,  loco  seu  numine  defensum.  G.  21.  7:  Quem- 
cumque  mortalium  arcere  tecto  nefas  habetur;  pro  fortuna  quisque 
apparatis  epulis  excipit.  Cum  defecere,  qui  modo  hospes  fuerat, 
monstrator  hospitii  et  comes ;  proximam  domum  non  invitati  adeunt. 
H.  II.  41.  6:  Caecina  dimissis  tribunis  revectus  in  castra  datum 
iussu  Fabii  Valentis  pugnae  signum  et  militem  in  armis  invenit. 
Dum  legiones  de  ordine  agminis  sortiuntur,  equites  prorupere ;  etc. 
H.  III.  83.  I :  Aderat  pugnantibus  spectator  populus,  utque  in 
ludicro  certamine,  hos,  rursus  illos  clamore  et  plausu  fovebat. 
Quotiens  pars  altera  inclinasset,  abditos  in  tabernis  aut  si  quam  in 


132       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

domum  perfugerant,  erui  iugularique  expostulantes  parte  maiore 
praedae  potiebantur :  etc.  Ann.  VI.  42.  4:  Et  quotiens  Concordes 
agunt,  spernitur  Parthus :  ubi  dissensere,  dum  sibi  quisque  contra 
aemulos  subsidium  vocant,  accitus  in  partem  adversum  omnes 
valescit.  G.  36.  2 :  idque  iucundius  quam  tutius  fuit,  quia  inter 
inpotentes  et  validos  f  also  quiescas :  ubi  manu  agitur,  modestia  ac 
probitas  nomina  superiori  sunt.  H.  IV.  71.  24:  Paulum  morae  in 
adscensu,  dum  missilia  hostium  praevehuntur :  ut  ventum  in  manus, 
deturbati  ruinae  modo  praecipitantur.  (The  last  three  examples 
rely  on  contrast  for  their  real  connection :  the  temporal  clause 
merely  furnishes  the  mechanical  framework.  The  contrast  lies  in 
particular  words,  as  for  example,  Concordes  and  dissensere.  These 
cases  have  been  more  fully  discussed  in  the  section  on  contrast.) 

3.  A  third  group  of  adverbial  connectives  corresponds  to 
the  class  of  words  vi^hich  are  incomplete  in  their  meaning- 
as  they  stand  alone  and  which  therefore  in  use  turn  the 
attention  back  toward  what  has  preceded  for  the  sake  of 
completing  the  meaning.  They  are  really  a  special  division 
of  that  class  and  therefore  need  only  to  be  illustrated.  The 
adverbs  so  used  are  alias,  aliqui,  aliter,  cetera,  circa,  circum, 
contra,  desuper,  insiiper,  interim,  pariter,  porro,  post,  rur- 
sum,  rursiis,  simul,  ultra.  The  following  adverbial  phrases 
belong  to  this  group  by  virtue  of  their  meaning:  e  con- 
trario,  ex  diverse,  medium  omne  tempus,  secutis  diebiis. 
Comparative  adverbs  like  nihilominus  belong  also  to  this 
group  and  such  phrases  as  postera  die  are  on  the  border  line 
between  this  and  the  preceding  type.    Examples  are : 

Ann.  III.  Ti.  9,  after  an  account  of  the  arrangements  for  Piso's 
trial :  Haud  ahas  intentior  populus  plus  sibi  in  principem  occultae 
vocis  aut  suspicacis  silentii  permisit.  Ann.  IV.  69.  11:  Properata 
inde  accusatio,  missisque  ad  Caesarem  litteris  ordinem  fraudis 
suumque  ipsi  dedecus  narravere.  Non  alias  magis  anxia  et  pavens 
civitas,  reticens  adversum  proximos;  etc.  Ann.  II.  38.  14:  Dedit 
tibi,  Hortale,  divus  Augustus  pecuniam,  sed  non  conpellatus  nee  ea 
lege,  ut  semper  daretur.  Languescet  alioqui  industria,  intendetur 
socordia,  etc.  H.  IV.  59.  16:  Classicus  corruptissimum  quemque  e 
deditis  pergere  ad  obsessos  iubet,  veniam  ostentantes,  si  praesentia 
sequerentur:  aliter  nihil  spei,  famem  ferrumque  et  extrema 
passuros.     G.   17.   i :    Tegumen  omnibus  sagum  fibula  aut,  si  desit, 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.        133 

spina  consertum:  cetera  intecti  totos  dies  iuxta  focum  atque  ignem 
agunt.     Ann.   I.  63.   14:    Angustus   is  trames  vastas   inter  paludes 

cetera   limosa,   tenacia  gravi   caeno  aut  rivis   incerta  erant; 

circum  silvae  paulatim  adclives,  etc.  Ann.  III.  31.  11:  Pro 
Corbulone  aetas,  patrius  mos,  studia  seniorum  erant:  contra 
Mamercus  Scaurus  et  L.  Arruntius  aliique  Sullae  propinqui  nite- 
bantur.  Ann.  IV.  48.  9:  alii  castra  Romana  adpugnarent,  non  spe 
capiendi,  sed  ut  clamore,  telis  suo  quisque  periculo  intentus  sonorem 
alterius  proelii  non  acciperet.  Tenebrae  insuper  delectae  augendam 
ad  formidinem.  D.  18.  13:  Nee  quaero  quis  dissertissimus :  hoc 
interim  probasse  contentus  sum  non  esse  unum  eloquentiae  vultum, 
etc.  Ann.  VI.  8.  18:  tibi  summum  rerum  iudicium  di  dedere,  nobis 
obsequi  gloria  relicta  est.  Spectamus  porro  quae  coram  habentur 
etc.  H.  IV.  46.  25:  Isque  finis  ilia  die.  Paucis  post  diebus  adlo- 
quentem  Domitianum  firmati  iam  excepere :  spernunt  oblatos  agros, 
militiam  et  stipendia  orant.  Ann.  I.  25.  4:  lUi  quotiens  oculos  ad 
multitudinem  rettulerant,  vocibus  truculentis  strepere,  rursum  viso 
Caesare  trepidare;  etc.  Ann.  I.  18.  5:  alio  vertunt,  atque  una  tres 
aquilas  et  signa  cohortium  locant;  simul  congerunt  caespites, 
exstruunt  tribunal,  quo  magis  conspicua  sedes  foret.  H.  II.  76.  15: 
cessisti  etiam  Galbae  imaginibus:  torpere  ultra  et  polluendam 
perdendamque  rem  publicam  relinquere  sopor  et  ignavia  videretur, 
etc.  H.  II.  5.  5,  after  a  description  of  Vespasian :  Mucianum  e 
contrario  magnificentia  et  opes  et  cuncta  privatum  modum  super- 
gressa  extollebant,  etc.  H.  III.  72-  2:  Quippe  Vitellianus  miles 
neque  astu  neque  constantia  inter  dubia  indigebat:  ex  diverse 
trepidi  milites,  dux  segnes  etc.  H.  IV.  62.  i :  Legio  sexta  decuma 
cum  auxiliis  simul  deditis  a  Novaesio  in  coloniam  Treverorum 
transgredi  iubetur,  praefinita  die,  intra  quam  castris  excederet. 
Medium  omne  tempus  per  varias  curas  egere  etc.  Ann.  II.  16.  2: 
Is  medius  inter  Visurgim  et  colles,  ut  ripae  fluminis  cedunt  aut 
prominentia  montium  resistunt,  inaequaliter  sinuatur.  Pone  tergum 
insurgebat  silva,  etc.  Ann.  XIII.  27.  15 :  Nee  multo  post  ereptus 
amitae  libertus  Paris  quasi  iure  civili,  non  sine  infamia  principis, 
cuius  iussu  perpetratum  ingenuitatis  iudicium  erat.  Manebat  nihilo 
minus  quaedam  imago  rei  publicae.  Ann.  XI.  38.  5 :  Nee  ille  quae- 
sivit,  poposcitque  poculum  et  solita  convivio  celebravit.  Ne  secutis 
quidem  diebus  odii  gaudii,  irae  tristitiae,  ullius  denique  humani 
adfectus  signa  dedit  etc. 

4.  The  adverbs  of  the  group  that  is  left  have  less  con- 
nective power  in  their  meaning-  than  any  of  the  others. 
Certe,  niminim,  quippe,  scilicet,  serve  rather  the  purpose  of 


134       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

italics  in  English:  they  emphasize  the  word  with  which 
they  are  used  and  in  so  doing-  bring  out  strongly  some  con- 
trast which  is  already  present  without  the  addition  of  the 
adverb.  Further  than  this,  they  regularly  mark  the  clause 
in  which  they  stand  as  explanatory  in  some  way  of  a  state- 
ment, either  uncertain  or  unusual,  in  the  preceding  sentence. 
They  vary  in  the  tone  which  they  give  to  the  clause: 
scilicet  generally  suggests  an  ironical,  quippe  a  serious 
tone.  The  same  points  are  true  also  of  sane  and  sine  dubio, 
but  these  words  dififer  from  the  rest  in  one  point:  they 
do  not  always  mark  their  clause  as  explanatory  of,  or  in 
any  way  related  to,  the  preceding  sentence  but  rather  as 
being  connected  with  the  following  sentence.  This  is  not, 
however,  a  totally  different  usage.  Just  as  alius  must  refer 
to  some  clause  outside  its  own,  and,  if  the  mind  has  nothing 
to  which  to  refer  it  in  what  has  preceded,  forces  it  to  antici- 
pate the  following  clause  or  sentence,  so  sane  and  sine  diihio 
have  the  same  anticipatory  force,  first  when  their  clause  can- 
not refer  to  what  has  preceded,  and  then,  when  this  usage  is 
familiar,  even  when  it  might  do  so.  Emphasized  contrast 
is  always  the  fundamental  connecting  element.  The  antici- 
patory use  of  these  words  has  been  discussed  in  the  second 
chapter.  It  remains  to  illustrate  the  usage  in  which  these 
adverbs  mark  their  own  sentences  as  explanatory  of  the 
preceding.  Ann.  XIV.  59.  4:  Sunt  qui  alios  a  socero  nun- 
tios  venisse  ferant,  tamquam  nihil  atrox  immineret;    doc- 

toresque    sapientiae constantiam    opperiendae    mortis 

pro  incerta  et  trepida  vita  suassisse.  Repertus  est  certe  per 
medium  diei  nudus  exercitando  corpori.  In  this  case  the 
assumption  of  the  subject  has  considerable  influence,  but 
the  certe  gives  the  tone  to  the  clause  and  makes  the  sort 
of  connection  between  the  clauses  plain.  Ann.  VI.  2.  8: 
Nam  principem  orabat  deligere  senatores,  ex  quis  viginti 
sorte  ducti  et  ferro  accincti,  quotiens  curiam  inisset,  salutem 
eius  defenderent.  Crediderat  nimirum  epistulae  subsidio 
sibi  alterum  ex  consulibus  poscentis,  ut  tutus  a  Capreis 
urbem  peteret.    As  will  be  seen  later,  the  tense  of  crediderat 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.        135 

in  itself  sugfgests  the  explanatory  nature  of  the  second 
clause.    The  nimirum  only  serves  to  mark  this. 

Quippe  is  used  more  frequently  by  Tacitus  and  in  more 
various  ways  than  the  other  similar  adverbs  and  it  therefore 
requires  more  examples.  Ann.  I.  32.  i :  Nee  legatus 
obviam  ibat:  quippe  plurium  vaecordia  constantiam  exem- 
erat.  Here  as  above  it  is  the  explanatory  pluperfect  which 
is  marked  by  the  adverb.     Ann.  I.  70.   16:     Pernoctavere 

sine  utensilibus baud  minus  miserabiles   quam  quos 

hostis  circumsidet :  quippe  illic  etiam  honestae  mortis  usus, 
his  inglorium  exitium.  The  demonstrative  illic  is  empha- 
sized by  quippe.  Ann.  VI.  27.  15:  Neque  nobilitas  diutius 
demonstranda  est :  quippe  Aemilium  genus  fecundum  bono- 
rum  civium,  etc.  In  this  example  a  general  statement  is 
pointed  by  a  particular  example  and  quippe  shows  that  the 
second  clause  is  such  a  particular  clause,  explaining  the 
first.    Ann.  XI.  26.  2 :   cum  abrumpi  dissimulationem  etiam 

Silius urguebat:    quippe  non  eo  ventum,  ut  senectam 

principis  opperirentur.  This  is  a  purely  explanatory  clause 
marked  by  quippe.  Ann.  XII.  36.  7:  et  Caesar  dum  suum 
decus  extollit,  addidit  gloriam  victo.  Vocatus  quippe  ut  ad 
insigne  spectaculum  populus :  etc.  In  this  case  the  quippe 
marks  an  explanatory  sentence  expressing  the  cause  of  the 

preceding  one.     Ann.  XV.  3.  i:    legiones  duas sub- 

sidium  Tigrani  mittit,  occulto  praecepto,  compositius  cuncta 
quam  festinantius  agerent:  quippe  bellum  habere  quam 
gerere  malebat.  This  quippe  clause  also  marks  its  sentence 
as  giving  the  reason  for  the  first  one.  The  connection 
would  not  be  more  clear  if  enim  were  used.  Ann.  XV.  29. 
2 :  Ille  de  nobilitate  generis  multum  praefatus,  cetera 
temperanter  adiungit:  iturum  quippe  Romam  laturumque 
novum  Caesari  decus,  etc.  This  is  a  case  of  the  beginning 
of  indirect  discourse  clearly  anticipated.  But  quippe  is 
used  to  mark  the  second  clause  as  indubitably  an  explana- 
tory one. 

Scilicet  is  not  unlike  quippe  except  that  it  has  a  more 
prevailingly  ironical   suggestion.     Ann.   VI.   23.   3:    Con- 


136       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

sultusque  Caesar  an  sepeliri  sineret,  non  erubuit  permittere 
ultroque  incusare  casus,  qui  reum  abstulissent,  antequani 
coram  convinceretur :  scilicet  medio  triennio  defuerat  tern- 
pus  subeundi  iudicium  consulari  seni,  tot  consularium  par- 
enti.  Ann.  IV.  61.  4:  monimenta  ingeni  eius  baud  perinde 
retinentur.  Scilicet  impetu  magis  quam  cura  vigebat;  etc. 
Ann.  XI.  24.  23 :  At  cum  Sennonibus  pugnavimus :  scilicet 
Vulsci  et  Aequi  numquam  adversam  nobis  aciem  instruxere. 
The  use  of  sane  with  reference  to  the  preceding  clause 
is  also  often  like  quippe.     Ann.  XII.   T^y.   12:    Atque  illi 

vinclis    absoluti    Agrippinam    quoque isdem    quibus 

principem  laudibus  gratibusque  venerati  sunt.  Novum 
sane  et  moribus  veterum  insolitum,  feminam  signis  Roma- 
nis  praesidere:  etc.  H.  I.  9.  7:  In  Britannico  exercitu 
nihil  irarum.  Non  sane  aliae  legiones  per  omnes  civi- 
lium  bellorum  motus  innocentius  egerunt.  Ann.  Ill,  70,  6: 
Non  enim  debere  eripi  patribus  vim  statuendi  neque  tantum 
maleficium  impune  habendum.  Sane  lentus  in  suo  dolore 
esset :  rei  publicae  iniurias  ne  largiretur.  This  last  case  is 
a  good  illustration  of  the  more  common  and  more  important 
use  of  sane — the  anticipatory.  Whether  it  also  marks  the 
entire  second  sentence  as  explanatory  of  the  first  is  perhaps 
more  doubtful. 


Among  the  identifying  signs  of  a  subordinate  sentence, 
Hermann  (K.  Z.  33.  (1895):  Parataxis)  notes  change  of 
person,  change  of  mode  and  change  of  tense.  Expressed 
in  more  general  terms,  these  are  the  functional  changes  in 
the  verb,  and,  disregarding  the  term  "subordinate,"  they 
are  all  found  expressing  sentence  connection,  the  relation 
of  one  sentence  or  clause  to  another,  in  Tacitus.  As  Her- 
mann says,  the  connection  by  means  of  a  change  of  person 
is  rarely  sufficient  in  itself  to  show  the  relation  to  each 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       137 

other  of  two  sentences ;  it  is  regularly  used  with  some  other 
means.  It  is  also  true  that  none  of  these  three  types  of 
changes  are  used  alone  by  Tacitus  to  any  considerable 
extent.  Almost  invariably  they  are  supported  by  some  of 
the  means  already  cited.  It  is  this  type  of  sentence  con- 
nection that  has  been  chiefly  studied  to  gain  an  understand- 
ing of  parataxis  in  its  narrower  sense,  and  it  is  this  type 
which  is  of  especial  interest  for  the  historical  study  of  the 
ut  clauses,  for  example.  But  Tacitus  is  not  the  author  in 
whom  to  look  for  examples  of  the  usage,  for  it  is  a  compar- 
atively early  one.  The  relations  which  are  expressed  by 
these  verb  changes  are  so  general  and  various  that,  in  the 
development  of  the  language,  precision  was  given  in  each 
case  by  the  adoption  of  further  means  to  indicate  the  par- 
ticular relation  in  the  particular  instance.  For  this  type  of 
connection  earlier  and  less  formal  Latin  must  be  studied; 
Plautus  is  both,  and  furnishes  an  especially  good  field  for 
the  study.  But  there  are  a  few  examples  even  from  Tacitus 
to  be  cited. 

I.  CHANGE  OF  PERSON.  Ordinarily  when  there  is 
a  change  in  the  person  of  the  verb,  the  subject  is  expressed 
with  the  second  verb,  and  this  in  itself  introduces  the  chief 
element  of  connection.  To  such  an  extent  is  this  true  that 
in  the  cases  in  which  the  subject  remains  the  same  and  is 
unexpressed,  that  fact  in  itself  becomes  a  guide  to  the  con- 
nection hardly  different  from  the  repetition  of  the  subject. 
In  cases,  however,  in  which  a  verb  in  the  first  person  is 
inserted  parenthetically,  the  change  of  person  distinctly 
marks  the  connection.    The  cases  of  this  in  Tacitus  are : 

D.    15.   4:    cum neminem   hoc   tempore   oratorem   esse   con- 

tenderes  parem  antiquis,  eo,  credo,  audacius,  quod  malignitatis 
opinionem  non  verebaris,  etc.  D.  26.  31 :  veritus  credo,  ne  multos 
offenderet,  si  paucos  excerpsisset.  D.  37.  25 :  Non,  opinor,  Demos- 
thenem  orationes  inlustrant,  quas  adversus  tutores  suos  composuit, 
etc.  D.  33.  11:  nee  tu  puto  abnues  et  hi  significare  vultu  videntur. 
H.  II.  76.  20:  Splendidior  origine  quam  nos  sumus,  fateor,  sed  et 
Nero  nobilitate  natalium  Vitellium  anteibat.    Ag.  10.  18:    Sed  mare 


138       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

pigrum  et  grave  remigantibus  perhibent  ne  ventis  quidem  perinde 
attoUi,  credo  quod  rariores  terrae  montesque,  causa  ac  materia 
tempestatum,  et  profunda  moles  continui  maris  tardius  impellitur. 
G.  2Z-  7-  Maneat,  quaeso,  duretque  gentibus,  si  non  amor  nostri, 
at  certe  odium  sui  etc. 

Even  when  a  slight  additional  element  of  connection  is 
added  by  introducing  a  conjunction,  the  change  of  person 
is  still  the  leading  element : 

D.  17.  I :  Sed  transeo  ad  Latinos  oratores,  in  quibus  non 
Menenium,  ut  puto,  Agrippam,  qui  potest  videri  antiquus,  nostrorum 
temporum  disertis  anteponere  soletis,  etc.  D.  21.  5 :  ipse  mihi 
Calvus,  cum  unum  et  viginti,  ut  puto,  libros  reliquerit,  vix  in  una 
et  altera  oratiuncula  satis  facit.  D.  25.  2:  neque  enim  diu  contra 
dicendum  est  Apro,  qui  primum,  ut  opinior,  nominis  controversiam 
movit,  tamquam  parum  proprie  antiqui  vocarentur,  quos  satis  con- 
stat ante  centum  annos  fuisse. 

The  change  of  person  is  also  one  of  the  chief  indications 
of  the  sentence  connection  in  those  instances  in  which  a 
clause  of  personal  explanation  in  the  first  person  is  inserted 
in  the  narrative.  This  may  be  thrown  in  parenthetically  in 
the  midst  of  a  sentence  or  form  by  itself  a  separate  sentence. 
In  either  case,  it  regularly  explains  Tacitus'  reasons  for 
some  statement  or  his  hesitancy  to  vouch  for  them. 
Examples  are : 

Ann.  IV.  34.  25 :  sed  ipse  divus  lulius,  ipse  divus  Augustus  et 
tulere  ista  et  reliquere,  baud  facile  dixerim,  moderatione  magis  an 
sapientia.     Ann.  XIV.  59.  12:     cuius  aspectu   (ipsa  principis  verba 

referam)    cur,  inquit  Nero (text  ends  abruptly.)     D.    18.  25: 

rursusque  Ciceronem  a  Calvo  quidem  male  audisse  tamquam  solu- 
tum  et  enervem,   a   Bruto  autem,  ut  ipsius  verbis  utar,   tamquam 

fractum   atque   elunibem.     D.   32.    19:     ut nunc   curcumcisa   et 

amputata,  sine  apparatu,  sine  honore,  paene  dixerim  sine  ingenui- 
tate,  quasi  una  ex  sordidissimis  artificiis  discatur.  D.  34.  7 :  ita  ut 
altercationes  quoque  exciperet  et  iurgiis  interesset  utque  sic  dixerim, 
pugnare  in  proelio  disceret.  Ann.  III.  65.  i,  after  an  account  of 
the  opinions  of  Apronius  and  Tiberius :  exsequi  sententias  baud 
institui  nisi  insignes  per  honestum  aut  notabili  dedecore  etc.  Ann. 
IV.  31.  20:  Eius  operae  memor  Tiberius,  sed  alia  praetendens, 
exilium  deprecatus  est:    quo  minus  senatu  pelleretur  non  obstitit 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       139 

Pleraque  eorum,  quae  rettulli  quaeque  referam,  parva  forsitan  et 
levia  memoratu  videri  non  nescius  sum:  etc.  H.  II.  36.  6:  Dein 
Flavium  Sabinum  consulem  designatum  Otho  rectorem  copiis  misit, 
quibus  Macer  praefuerat,  laeto  milite  ad  mutationem  ducum  et 
ducibus  ob  crebras  seditiones  tam  infestam  militiam  aspernantibus. 
Invenio  apud  quosdam  auctores,  pavore  belli  sen  fastidio  utriusque 
principis dubitasse  exercitus  etc. 

The  change  of  person  has  some  influence  also  in  express- 
ing the  connection  at  the  beginning-  of  a  direct  quotation,  or 
in  a  directly  quoted  dialogue.  This  influence  is  not  great, 
because  of  the  strength  of  the  other  elements  of  connection 
always  present,  but  it  is  undoubtedly  present  in  such  cases 
as  the  following: 

Ann.  IV.  8.  18:  Quibus  adprensis  'patres  conscripti,  hos'  inquit 
'orbatos  parente  tradidi  patruo  ipsorum  etc'  Ann.  VI.  6.  i :  Insigne 
visum  est  earum  Caesaris  litterarum  initium;  nam  his  verbis 
exorsus  est:  'quid  scribam  vobis,  patres  conscripti,  aut  quo  modo 
scribam  aut  quid  omnino  non  scribam  hoc  tempore,  di  me  deaeque 
peius  perdant,  quam  perire  me  cotidie  sentio,  si  scio.'  Ann.  XIV. 
42.  9 :  Ex  quis  C.  Cassius  sententiae  loco  in  hunc  modum  disseruit : 
'Saepe  numero,  patres  conscripti,  in  hoc  ordine  interfui,  cum  con- 
tra instituta  et  leges  maiorum  nova  senatus  decreta  postularentur, 
etc'  H.  I.  36.  16:  pro  vallo  castrorum  ita  coepit.  'Quis  ad  vos 
processerim,  commilitones,  dicere  non  possum  etc'  Ag.  29.  16: 
Calgacus  apud  contractam  multitudinem  proelium  poscentem  in 
hunc  modum  locutus  fertur:  'Quotiens  causas  belli  et  necessitatem 
nostram  intueor,  etc' 

Especially  is  this  means  useful  in  pointing  the  connection 
in  those  quotations  in  which  the  anticipation  is  doubtful, 
as  in  the  following: 

Ann.  I.  28.  14:  Hi  vigiliis,  stationibus,  custodiis  portarum  se 
inserunt,  spem  offerunt,  metum  intendunt.  'Quo  usque  filium 
imperatoris  obsidebimus?'  H.  III.  81.  7:  Obviae  fuere  et  virgines 
Vestales  cum  epistulis  Vitellii  ad  Antonium  scriptis :  eximi  supremo 
certamini  unum  diem  postulabat ;  etc.  Ag.  33.  15 :  f ortissimi 
cuiusque  voces  audiebam :  'quando  dabitur  hostis,  quando  acies  ?' 
.Veniunt,  e  latebris  suis  extrusi,  etc.  (The  last  case  is  especially 
good  as  having  two  changes,  the  second  one  in  particular  furnish- 


14°       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

ing  a  strong  element  of  connection.  In  both  the  cases  in  this 
example  the  tense  changes  are  also  important  and  will  be  discussed 
later.) 

In  some  of  the  cases  of  the  following  paragraphs  the 
change  of  person  will  be  found  as  a  subsidiary  means  of 
connection  by  the  side  of  connection  by  tense  or  mode.  In 
such  a  case  as  Orabant  pimiret  noxios  (Ann.  I.  44.  i)  it  is 
of  considerable  importance,  but  the  modal  change  is  the  most 
prominent  and  the  examples  will  therefore  be  cited  in  that 
connection. 

2.  CHANGE  OF  TENSE.  The  simplest  type  of  the 
change  of  tense,  because  of  the  frequency  with  which  it  is 
made  use  of  by  Tacitus,  is  that  from  a  narrative  tense, 
either  imperfect  or  perfect,  to  the  pluperfect,  for  the  pur- 
pose usually  of  introducing  an  explanation.  The  pluper- 
fect tense  has  always  the  sort  of  incompleteness  in  its 
meaning  which  has  already  been  noted  in  certain  words 
like  alius;  but  in  the  pluperfect  tense  it  is  an  incomplete- 
ness due  to  the  time  idea.  If  something  had  happened,  it 
necessarily  implies  that  something  did  happen  or  zvas  hap- 
pening to  which  the  first  something  was  precedent.  This 
is  so  far  true  that  if  the  pluperfect  tense  can  refer  to  no 
action  already  described,  it  necessarily  anticipates  one  to 
be  described,  again  a  parallel  to  the  use  of  alius.  This  last 
type,  however,  regularly  has  in  Tacitus  a  cum  or  other 
conjunction  with  the  second  verb  to  make  the  connection 
perfectly  clear,  as  in  D.  14.  i :  Vixdum  finierat  Maternus, 
concitatus  et  velut  instinctus,  cum  Vipstanus  Messalla  cubi- 
culum  ingressus  est,  etc.  Other  examples  of  the  anticipa- 
tory use  of  the  pluperfect  are : 

Ann.  II.  8.  i :  lamque  classis  advenerat,  cum  praemisso  commeatu 
et  distributis  in  legiones  ac  socios  navibus  fossam,  cui  Drusianae 

nomen,  ingressus Oceanum  usque  ad  Amisiam  flumen  secunda 

navigatione  pervehitur.  (This  example  is  one  of  the  most  doubtful 
from  the  point  of  view  of  anticipation,  for  the  pluperfect  might 
have  reference  to  what  has  preceded :  the  cum  is  really  needed  here 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       141 

to  mark  the  connection.)  Ann.  IV.  64.  i :  Nondum  ea  clades 
exoleverat,  cum  ignis  violentia  urbem  ultra  solitum  adfecit,  deusto 
monte  Caelio ;    etc.     Ann.  VI.  25.  i :    Nondum  is  dolor  exoleverat, 

cum  de  Agrippina  auditum voluntate  exstinctam,  etc.     D.  42. 

I :  Finierat  Maternus,  cum  Messalla :  'Erant  quibus  contra  dicerem, 
erant  de  quibus  plus  dici  vellem,  nisi  iam  dies  esset  exactus.' 

In  all  of  the  foregoing  cases  the  relation  has  been  alto- 
gether one  of  time.  The  change  from  pluperfect  to  perfect 
or  imperfect  may  also  express  other  relations,  such  as  the 
adversative  or  causal,  but  these  too  are  regularly  marked 
by  a  conjunction  or  other  familiar  sign  of  connection,  and 
the  succession  of  time  is  a  very  prominent  factor.  For 
example : 

Ann.  I.  56.  18:  Fuerat  animus  Cheruscis  iuvare  Chattos,  sed 
exterruit  Caecina  hue  illuc  ferens  arma;  et  Marsos  congredi  ausos 
prospero  proelio  cohibuit.  H.  IV.  18.  19:  Nudaverat  sinistrum 
cornu  Batavorum  ala  transfugiens  statimque  in  nos  versa.  Sed 
legionarius  miles,  quamquam  rebus  trepidus,  arma  ordinemque 
retinebat.  Ann.  III.  2.  i :  Miserat  duas  cohortes  Caesar,  addito  ut 
magistratus  Calabriae  Apulique  et  Campani  suprema  erga  memo- 
riam  filii  sui  munia  fungeretur.  Igitur  tribunorum  centurionumque 
umeris  cineres  portabantur ;  etc.  H.  III.  69.  i :  Praevenerat  rumor 
eiurari  ab  eo  imperium  scripseratque  Flavins  Sabinus  cohortium 
tribunis,  ut  militem  cohiberent.  Igitur  tamquam  omnis  res  publica 
in  Vespasiani  sinum  cecidisset,  primores  senatus  et  plerique  eques- 
tris  ordinis  omnisque  miles  urbanus  et  vigiles  domum  Flavii  Sabini 
complevere.  Ann.  XIV.  45.  8:  Censuerat  Cingonius  Varro  ut 
liberti  quoque,  qui  sub  eodem  tecto  fuissent,  Italia  deportarentur. 
Id  a  principe  prohibitum  est,  etc.  H.  V.  12.  5 :  Providerant  condi- 
tores  ex  diversitate  morum  crebra  bella:  inde  cuncta  quamvis 
adversus  longum  obsidium;  etc.  Ann.  XV.  16.  16:  Decesserat 
certamen  virtutis  et  ambitio  gloriae,  felicium  hominum  adfectus: 
sola  miser icordia  valebat,  et  apud  minores  magis.  (In  this  case 
contrast  is  the  auxiliary  means  of  connection;  the  tense  change  is 
more  important  than  in  the  preceding  cases.  In  the  following 
example,  it  is  still  more  so.)  H.  I.  20.  2:  Bis  et  viciens  miliens 
sestertium  donationibus  Nero  effuderat:  appellari  singulos  iussit, 
decuma  parte  liberalitatis  apud  quemque  eorum  relicta.  (The  more 
nearly  the  tense  change  comes  to  being  the  one  means  of  expressing 
the  connection,  the  more  nearly  does  the  pluperfect,  which  has 
nothing  preceding  it  to  which  it  can  refer,  become  an  anticipatory 
means  of  connection.) 


142        Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  more  ordinary  change 
from  a  simple  past  tense  to  a  pluperfect;  sometimes  the 
subject  remains  the  same  in  the  second  verb  and  is  therefore 
not  expressed;   otherwise  it  is  regularly  expressed. 

Ann.  III.  45.  7 :  Duodecimum  apud  lapidem  Sacrovir  copiaeque 
patentibus  locis  apparuere.  In  fronte  statuerat  ferratos,  in  cornibus 
cohortes,  a  tergo  semermos.  Ann.  IV.  44.  4:  Domitium  decoravit 
pater  civili  bello  maris  potens,  donee  Antonii  partibus,  mox  Caesaris 
misceretur.  Avus  Pharsalica  acie  pro  optumatibus  ceciderat.  Ann. 
IV.  74.  2:  Neque  senatus  in  eo  cura,  an  imperii  extrema  dehonest- 
arentur:  pavor  internus  occupaverat  animos,  cui  remedium  adul- 
atione  quaerebatur.  Ann.  VI.  8.  5 :  f  atebor  et  f  uisse  me  Seiano 
amicum,  et  ut  essem  expetisse,  et  postquam  adeptus  eram  laetatum. 
Videram  collegam  patris  regendis  praetoriis  cohortibus,  mox  urbis 
et  militiae  munia  simul  obeuntem.  Ann.  XV.  16.  14:  Maesti 
manipuli  ac  vicem  commilitonum  miserantes  ne  lacrimis  quidem 
temperare;  vix  prae  fletu  usurpata  consalutatio.  Decesserat  cer- 
tamen  virtutis  et  ambitio  gloriae,  f elicium  hominum  adfectus :  sola 
misericordia  valebat,  et  apud  minores  magis.  (This  case  is  repeated 
here  to  show  the  difficulty  in  some  instances  in  saying  whether  the 
pluperfect  refers  to  what  has  preceded  or  to  what  follows.  In  this 
case  both  the  change  to  the  pluperfect  from  the  single  past  tense 
and  also  the  change  from  the  pluperfect  to  the  imperfect  make  con- 
nection.) H.  I.  67.  4:  Initium  bello  fuit  avaritia  ac  festinatio  una- 
etvicensimae  legionis ;  rapuerant  pecuniam  missam  in  stipendium 
castelli,  quod  olim  Helvetii  suis  militibus  ac  stipendiis  turbantur. 
H.  II.  8.  17:  Gliscentem  in  dies  famam  fors  discussit;  Galatiam 
ac  Pamphyliam  provincias  Calpurnio  Asprenati  regendas  Galba 
permiserat.  H.  II.  65.  13:  Non  idem  Trebellio  Maximo  honos: 
profugerat  Britannia  ob  iracundiam  militum  etc.  H.  II.  72.  i : 
Non  ultra  paucos  dies  quamquam  acribus  initiis  coeptum  mendacium 
valuit.  Extiterat  quidam  Scribonianum  se  Camerinum  ferens  etc. 
H.  III.  75.  I  :  Hie  exitus  viri  baud  sane  spernendi.  Quinque  et 
triginta  stipendia  in  re  publica  feeerat,  domi  militiaeque  clarus. 
H.  III.  84.  27 :  laniata  veste,  foedum  spectaculum,  ducebatur,  multis 
increpantibus,  nullo  inlacrimante :  deformitas  exitus  misericordiam 
abstulerat.  Ag.  9.  10:  ubi  officio  satis  factum,  nulla  ultra  potestatis 
persona;  tristitiam  et  adrogantiam  et  avaritiam  exuerat.  Compare 
the  use  with  interim  to  mark  the  time  relation:  Ag.  40.  11 :  Tradi- 
derat  interim  Agricola  successori  suo  provinciam  quietam  tutamque. 

A  second  important  tense  change  which  occasionally 
serves  in  Tacitus  to  express  sentence  connection  is  that 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.        143 

from  a  past  tense  to  a  present.  This  is  used  regularly  in 
such  cases  as  have  stated  in  the  second  sentence  the  result 
of  the  action  described  in  the  first ;  it  is  an  aid  to  the  under- 
standing- of  this  relation  which  is  often  sufficiently  clear 
to  be  left  practically  without  expressed  connection.  A  good 
example  is  H.  I.  40.  5 :  Othoni  tamen  armari  plebem 
nuntiabatur ;  ire  praecipites  et  occupare  pericula  iubet. 
The  relation  between  the  two  sentences  is  that  which  we 
often  express  in  English  by  using  "therefore"  to  introduce 
the  second  clause.  The  change  to  a  present  tense  is  not 
necessary :  iussit  would  be  equally  in  place.  Ordinarily  the 
present  is  said  to  be  that  of  vivid  narrative.  This  is  no 
doubt  true,  but  the  change  to  such  a  present  from  the  past 
tense  indicates  at  the  same  time  the  antecedent  or  causal 
relation  of  the  first  clause  to  the  second.  Further  examples 
are: 

Ann.  II.  25.  I :  Sed  fama  classis  amissae  ut  Germanos  ad  spem 
belli,  ita  Caesarem  ad  coercendum  erexit.  C.  Silio  cum  triginta 
peditum,  tribus  equitum  milibus  ire  in  Chattos  imperat;  etc.  H.  II 
76.  18:  Abiit  iam  et  transvectum  est  tempus,  quo  posses  videri  con- 
cupisse :  conf  ugiendum  est  ad  imperium.  H.  III.  29.  12 :  Ceteri 
trepidis  iam  Vitellianis  seque  e  vallo  praecipitantibus  perrupere. 
Completur  caede  quantum  inter  castra  murosque  vacui  fuit.  H.  III. 
36.  10:  Plus  apud  socordem  animum  laetitia  quam  cura  valuit. 
Multa  cum  exsultatione  in  urbem  revectus  frequenti  contione 
pietatem  militum  laudibus  cumulat ;  etc.  H.  IV.  34.  13 :  unde  maior 
indici  fides,  simul  vastatione  incendiisque  flagrantium  villarum 
venire  victorem  exercitum  intellegebatur.  In  conspectu  castrorum 
constitui  signa  fossamque  et  vallum  circumdari  Vocula  iubet: 
depositis  inpedimentis  sarcinisque  expediti  certarent.  H.  IV.  35.  13 : 
Non  erat  dubium,  quantum  in  regressu  discriminis  adeundum  foret 
frumentatoribus  onustis  perculsisque.  Addit  exercitui  suo  Vocula 
mille  delectos  e  quinta  et  quinta  decuma  legionibus  apud  Vetera 
obsessis,  indomitum  militem  et  ducibus  infensum.  H.  V.  23.  i : 
Civilem  cupido  incessit  navalem  aciem  ostentandi :  complet  quod 
biremium  quaeque  simplici  ordine  agebantur;    etc. 

The  change   from  a  present  tense  to  a   future  or  the 
reverse  occurs  mainly  in  the  type  of  cases  already  noted 


144       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

in  which  an  imperative  virtually  expresses  a  condition  or 
a  concession,  and  is  followed  by  a  sentence  with  a  future 
verb  expressing  what  will  happen  as  a  result  of  the 
condition  or  in  spite  of  the  concession.  Such  a  case 
was  Ann.  II.  71.  17:  Ostendite  populo  Romano  divi 
Augusti  neptem  eandemque  coniugem  meam,  numerate  sex 
liberos.  Misericordia  cum  accusantibus  erit,  fingentibusque 
scelesta  mandata  aut  non  credent  homines  aut  non  ignoscent. 
As  was  said  in  the  discussion  of  such  examples  in  the  sec- 
ond chapter,  the  hypothetical  nature  of  the  imperative  in 
the  first  sentence  anticipates  the  second,  but  not  until  the 
change  of  tense  is  made  in  this  second  sentence  is  the  rela- 
tion altogether  clear.  H.  IV.  yy.  20,  furnishes  another 
good  case:  Ite,  nuntiate  Vespasiano  vel,  quod  propius  est, 
Civili  et  Classic©,  relictum  a  vobis  in  acie  ducem :  venient 
legiones,  quae  neque  me  inultum  neque  vos  impunitos 
patiantur.  The  imperative  obviously  does  not  express  a 
command  which  the  speaker  expects  to  have  carried  out. 
It  is  hypothetical  and  this  in  itself  leads  to  an  expectation 
of  something  to  follow  which  shall  make  clear  the  point 
of  the  imperative.  But  until  the  future  tense  is  expressed 
in  the  second  sentence,  there  is  doubt  as  to  whether  this 
sentence  will  be  adversative  or  equivalent  to  a  protasis.  In 
English  there  is  the  construction:  Do  so  if  you  wish,  but 
don't  make  it  known.  And  there  is  also  the  construction: 
Do  so  if  you  wish,  and  you  will  suffer.  In  the  same  way 
in  Latin,  an  adversative  clause  with  strong  contrast  or  with 
sed  might  follow  the  imperative  sentence  or,  as  in  these 
cases,  a  future  tense  expressing  the  inevitable  result  of 
the  action  suggested  in  the  imperative.  The  other  exam- 
ples have  already  been  cited  and  need  not  be  repeated: 
one  case  of  the  reverse  order  of  sentences  will  be  sufficient : 
Ag.  15.  16:  Recessuros,  ut  divus  lulius  recessisset,  modo 
virtutem  maiorum  suorum  aemularentur.  This  use  of 
modo  marks  a  slightly  different  type  of  imperative:  it  is 
no  longer  hypothetical  but  is  still  not  a  real  command.  It  is 
an  exhortation  or  plea  not  an  order  given  with  assurance 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       145 

of  its  being  obeyed.     Otherwise  the  relation  between  the 
two  sentences  is  the  same  as  in  the  other  examples. 

Finally,  the  effect  of  tense  changes  in  indirect  discourse, 
changes  from  the  tense  of  the  verb  of  saying  to  that  of 
the  infinitive,  have  a  distinct  force  in  expressing  the  rela- 
tion between  the  two.  The  mode,  of  course,  expresses  the 
general  relation  and  is  therefore  the  more  prominent  and 
important  syntactically,  but  the  tense  is  just  as  necessary  to 
an  understanding  of  the  precise  sense  relation  between  the 
clauses.  The  use  of  the  various  tenses  in  this  way  is  too 
familiar  to  require  illustration,  but  examples  may  be  found 
in  the  chapter  on  anticipation. 

3.  CHANGE  OF  MODE.  The  change  from  an  indica- 
tive to  an  infinitive  is  one  of  the  most  familiar  types  of 
sentence  connection.  In  the  case  of  the  complementary 
infinitive  there  is  little  trace  of  the  two  verbs  ever  having 
formed  separate  clauses  so  that  the  connection  is  extremely 
close.  This  is  not  so  true  of  the  infinitive  of  indirect  dis- 
course, which  stands  regularly  in  a  distinct  clause  or  sen- 
tence, depending  primarily  on  the  change  of  mode  to 
express  the  relation.  There  is  also  regularly  present  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  anticipation,  as  was  shown  in  the  first  chapter. 
Both  infinitive  uses  are  too  familiar  to  require  illustration. 

The  changes  from  indicative  to  subjunctive  show  a 
greater  variety.  Those  very  familiar  cases  in  which  a 
conjunction  or  particle  is  employed  to  mark  the  connection 
and  really  becomes  the  expression  of  connection,  are 
omitted.  The  majority  of  the  cases  remaining  consist  of 
commands  or  exhortations  or  prayers  expressed  in  the 
subjunctive  after  various  sorts  of  verbs  of  saying.  In  case 
the  verb  is  one  of  mere  saying  without  any  idea  of  ordering, 
exhorting  or  beseeching,  the  change  of  mode  is  the  main 
connecting  force,  aside  from  the  general  anticipation  in  all 
verbs  of  saying.    Examples  of  this  type  are  few : 

Ann.  II.  17.  6:  exclamat  irent,  sequerentur  Romanas  aves  propria 
legionum  numina.     Ann.  II.  26.  17:  Simul  adnectabat,  si  foret  adhuc 


146       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

bellandum,  relinqueret  materiem  Drusi  fratris  gloriae,  etc.  Ann. 
XI.  15.  11:  Factum  ex  eo  senatus  consultum,  viderent  pontifices 
quae  retinenda  firmandaque  haruspicum.  Ann.  XL  36.  i :  Solus 
Mnester  cunctationem  attulit,  dilaniata  veste  clamitans  aspiceret 
verberum  notas,  reminisceretur  vocis,  qua  se  obnoxium  iussis 
Messalinae  dedisset ;  etc.  Ann.  XII.  63.  3 :  redditum  oraculum  est, 
quaererent  sedem  caecorum  terris  adversam.  Ann.  XIII.  27.  13 : 
Haec  sententia  valuit,  scripsitque  Caesar  senatui,  privatim  expend- 
erent  causam  libertorum,  quotiens  a  patronis  arguerentur :  in  com- 
mune nihil  derogarent.  Ann.  XIV.  22.  13 :  Ergo  permotus  his  Nero 
componit  ad  Plautum  litteras,  consuleret  quieti  urbis,  seque  prava 
dififamantibus  subtraheret:  etc.  Ann.  XV.  17.  11:  At  Vologesis  ad 
Corbulonem  missi  nuntii,  detraheret  castella  trans  Euphraten 
amnemque,  ut  olim,  medium  faceret. 

More  often,  the  verb  of  the  first  sentence  has  in  its  mean- 
ing an  idea  of  ordering,  exhorting  or  beseeching  and  so 
more  specifically  anticipates  the  imperative  or  hortatory 
verb  of  the  second.    The  following  cases  furnish  examples : 

After  Verbs  of  Commanding.  H.  II.  46.  4:  bonum  haberet  ani- 
mum  iubebant:  etc.  (The  change  of  person  has  some  influence  in 
this  case.)  Ann.  IV.  25.  13:  Differtur  per  manipulos,  Tacfarinatem 
omnes,  notum  tot  proeliis,  consectentur :  non  nisi  duce  interfecto 
requiem  belli  fore.  Ann.  XIII.  15.  7:  ubi  Britannico  iussit  exsur- 
geret  progressusque  in  medium  cantum  aliquem  inciperet,  etc.  Ann. 
XIV.  38.  14 :  Simul  in  urbem  mandabat,  nullum  proeliorum  finem 
exspectarent,    nisi    succederetur    Suetonio,    etc.      Ann.    XV.    3.    i : 

legiones     duas mittit,     occulto    praecepto,     compositius    quam 

festinantius  agerent:  etc.  (The  regular  change  of  tense  is  notice- 
able.) 

After  Verbs  of  Urging,  Advising,  Warning.  Ann.  I.  35.  20: 
quidam  singuli  propius  incedentes,  feriret  hortabantur;  etc.  Ann. 
II.  26.  6:  Sed  crebris  epistulis  Tiberius  monebat  rediret  ad  decretum 
triumphum:  satis  iam  eventuum,  satis  casuum.  Ann.  XI.  34.  4: 
Instabat  quidem  Narcissus  aperiret  ambages  et  veri  copiam  faceret 
etc.  Ann.  XII.  25.  3 :  stimulabat  Claudium,  consuleret  rei  publicae, 
Britannici  pueritiam  robore  circumdaret  etc.  Ann.  XIII.  9.  i : 
Ceterum  uterque  ad  Vologesem  regem  nuntiis  monebant,  pacem 
quam  bellum  mallet  datisque  obsidiis  solitam  prioribus  reverentiam 
in  populum  Romanum  continuaret.  H.  I.  39.  4:  cum  alii  in  Pala- 
tium  rediret,  alii  Capitolium  peteret,  plerique  rostra  occupanda 
censerent,  etc.  H.  IV.  20.  6:  Cunctantem  legatum  milites  perpu- 
lerant,  fortunam  proelii  experiretur. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       147 

After  Verbs  of  Asking,  Begging,  Praying.  Ann.  I.  44.  i :  Sup- 
plices  ad  haec  et  vera  exprobari  fatentes  orabant  puniret  noxios, 
ignosceret  lapsis  et  duceret  in  hostem :  etc.  Ann.  III.  10.  6 : 
petitmnque  est  a  principe  cognitionem  exciperet.  Ann.  III.  36.  14: 
precabanturque  Drusum  daret  ultionis  exemplum,  donee  accitam 
convictamque  attineri  publica  custodia  iussit.  Ann.  XV.  11.  ii: 
missis  iterum  ad  Corbulonem  precibus,  veniret  propere,  signa  et 
aquilas  et  nomen  reliquum  infelicis  exercitus  tueretur:  etc.  Ann. 
XV.  63.  3 :  rogat  oratque  temperaret  dolori  neu  aeternum  susciperet, 
sed  in  contemplatione  vitae  per  virtutem  actae  desiderium  mariti 
solaciis  honestis  toleraret.  H.  I.  65.  12:  nee  iam  secreta  exhortatio, 
sed  publicae  preces :  irent  ultores,  excinderent  sedem  Gallici  belli : 
etc.  H.  IV.  64.  10:  Sed  ut  amicitia  societasque  nostra  in  aeternum 
rata  sint,  postulamus  a  vobis,  muros  coloniae,  munimenta  servitii, 
detrahatis  etc. 

There  are  in  Tacitus  only  four  cases  of  a  finite  verb  fol- 
lowing licet  and  one  of  necesse  est;  all  are  marked  by  a 
change  from  the  indicative  to  the  subjunctive.  It  is  notice- 
able that  of  these,  three  are  in  the  Dialogus  and  one  in 
the  Agricola. 

Ann.  XIV.  55.  13 :  Ac  licet  multa  videantur,  plerique  haudqua- 
quam  artibus  tuis  pares  plura  tenuerunt.  Ag.  32.  5 :  nisi  si  Gallos 
et  Germanos  et  (pudet  dictu)  Britannorum  plerosque,  licet  domina- 
tioni  alienae  sanguinem  commodent,  diutius  tamen  hostes  quam 
servos,  fide  et  adfectu  teneri  putatis.  D.  9.  5:  Licet  haec  ipsa  et 
quae  deinceps  dicturus  sum  aures  tuae,  Materne,  respuant,  cui  bono 
est,  si  apud  te  Agammemnon  aut  lason  disserte  loquitur?  D.  13. 
3 :  Licet  illos  certamina  et  pericula  sua  ad  consulatus  evexerint, 
malo  securum  et  quietem  Virgilii  secessum,  etc.  D.  30.  7:  <prius> 
referam  necesse  est  animum  ad  earn  disciplinam,  qua  uses  esse  eos 
oratores  accepimus,  etc. 

Regular  indirect  questions  are  of  course  marked  by  a 
change  of  mode  but  in  Tacitus  they  always  have  one  of  the 
regularly  recognized  interrogative  particles,  adverbs  or 
pronouns  to  make  clear  the  sentence  connection.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  a  great  many  double  questions  in 
Tacitus  in  which  the  connection  between  the  verb  of  saying 
or  asking  and  that  which  forms  the  first  member  of  the 
double  question,  is  marked  entirely  by  change  of  mode. 


148       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

The  two  members  are  connected  by  an  but  this  really  acts 
only  on  the  second  verb  of  the  double  question:  before  it 
is  reached  the  connection  is  already  clear  as  far  as  the  other 
verb  in  the  second  sentence  is  concerned.  When  the  verb 
of  saying  or  asking  is  delayed  till  after  the  others,  then  the 
an  has  more  connective  force  with  the  first  subjunctive,  but 
there  are  many  examples  of  the  other  type,  with  the  verb 
of  asking  first  and  the  sentence  connection  lying  in  the 
change  of  mode. 

Ann.  I.  so.  6:  consultatque,  ex  duobus  itineribus  breve  et  solitum 
sequatur  an  impeditum  et  intemptatum  eoque  hostibus  incautum. 
Ann.  III.  12.  12:  Simulque  illud  reputate,  turbide  et  seditiose 
tractaverit  exercitus  Piso,  quaesita  sint  per  ambitionem  studia  mili- 
tum,  armis  repetita  provincia,  an  falsa  haec  in  maius  vulgaverint 
accusatores,  quorum  ego  nimiis  studiis  iure  suscenseo.  Ann.  V.  6. 
6:  Miserius  sit  ob  amicitiam  accusari  an  amicum  accusare,  baud 
discreverim.  Ann.  XII.  20.  2 :  dubitavit  tamen,  accipere  captivum 
pacto  salutis  an  repetere  armis  rectius  foret.  H.  I.  69.  i :  Haud 
facile  dictu  est,  legati  Helvetiorum  minus  placabilem  imperatorem 
an  militem  invenerint.  H.  III.  77.  17 :  Ipse  lauream  gestae  pros- 
pere  rei  ad  fratrem  misit,  percontatus  statim  regredi  se  an  perdo- 
mandae  Campaniae  insistere  iuberet.  H.  IV.  60.  15 :  Simulata  ea 
fuerint  an  retinere  saevientes  nequiverit,  parum  adfirmatur.  G.  46. 
I :  Peucinorum  Venedorumque  et  Tennorum  nationes  Germanis  an 
Sarmatis  adscribam  dubito,  etc.  D.  32.  3 :  longeque  interesse 
manifestum  est,  possideat  quis  quae  profert  an  mutuetur. 

Finally,  there  is  one  striking  case  in  the  Agricola,  in 
which  the  manuscript  reading  furnishes  an  example  of  con- 
nection purely  by  change  of  mode.  It  is  Ag.  43.  6 :  nobis 
nihil  comperti  adfirmare  ausim.  The  context  shows  that  this 
cannot  mean  simply,  "I  would  dare  affirm  that  I  have  found 
out  nothing."  It-  must  mean,  "I  have  found  out  nothing 
such  that  I  would  dare  affirm  this  (i.  e.  the  statement  that 
Agricola  was  poisoned.)"  Editors  have  supplied  a  quod, 
a  nee  or  (most  frequently  and  following  Wex)  an  ut.  As 
the  text  stands  the  sense  is  clear  and  the  sentence  furnishes 
a  striking  example  of  connection  expressed  by  change  of 
mode. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.       149 

The  change  from  a  participle  to  some  true  verb  form  and 
vice  versa  is  the  last  verbal  change  that  expresses  sentence 
connection.  The  change  itself  establishes  only  the  most 
general  relation,  which  is  rendered  more  accurate  by  various 
means :  contrast  or  repetition  occurs  very  frequently,  and 
always  the  tense  of  the  participle,  especially  if  there  is  a  tense 
change  between  participle  and  verb,  is  very  important.  The 
use  of  the  ablative  absolute  comes  under  this  group,  but  the 
chief  factor  in  establishing  sentence  connection,  when  this 
construction  is  used,  is  repetition,  and  examples  have  been 
given  under  that  head.  When  the  participles  are  used  as 
pure  adjectives,  they  no  longer  fall  imder  the  present  cate- 
gory. It  remains  to  illustrate  the  numerous  cases  in  which 
the  change  from  participle  to  verb  is  the  chief  connective 
force.  Even  in  these  examples  the  continuance  of  the  same 
subject  serves  to  reinforce  the  connection,  and  the  usage  is 
sufficiently  familiar  to  require  but  few  examples. 

Ann.  I.  zt4.  14 :  Secuti  exemplum  veterani  hand  multo  post  in 
Raetiam  mittuntur,  specie  defendendae  provinciae  etc.  Ann.  II. 
69.  8:  Tnm  Seleuciam  degreditur,  opperiens  aegritudinem,  quae 
rursum  Germanico  acciderat.  Ann.  III.  11.  i  :  Atque  interim 
Drusus  rediens  Illyrico,  quamquam  patres  censuissent  ob  receptum 
Maroboduum  et  res  priore  aestate  gestas  ut  ovans  iniret,  prolate 
honore  urbem  intravit.  Ann.  XIII.  46.  7:  Sed  accepto  aditu 
Poppaea  primum  per  blandimenta  et  artes  valescere,  imparem 
cupidini  se  et  forma  Neronis  captam  simulans ;  etc.  Ann.  XV.  60. 
3:  Raptus  in  locum  servilibus  poenis  sepositum  manu  Statii  tribuni 
trucidatur,  etc.  H.  I.  45.  5:  Nee  aspernabatur  singulos  Otho, 
avidum  et  minacem  militum  animum  voce  voltuque  temperans.  H. 
II.  51.  2:  Ad  Verginium  versi,  modo  ut  reciperet  imperium,  nunc 
ut  legatione  apud  Caecinam  ac  Valentem  fungeretur,  minitantes 
orabant:  etc.  H.  II.  86.  5:  Praepositus  a  Galba  septimae  legioni 
scriptitasse  Othoni  credebatnr,  ducem  se  partibus  offerens;  etc. 
H.  III.  16.  8:  Hortatus  suos  ut  magno  animo  capesserent  pugnam, 
diductis  in  latera  turmis  vacuum  medio  relinquit  iter,  quo  Varum 
equitesque  eius  reciperet;  etc.  H.  III.  65.  11:  Saepe  domi  con- 
gressi,  postremo  in  aede  Apollinis,  ut  fama  fuit.  pepigere.  H.  IV. 
46.  6 :  Ingressus  castra  Mucianus,  quo  rectius  stipendia  singulorum 
spectaret,  suis  cum  insignibus  armisque  victores  constituit,  modicis 
inter  se   spatiis   discretos.     H.   V.    16.    12:    Proprios   inde   stimulos 


15°        Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

legionibus  admovebat,  domitores  Britanniae  quartadecumanos  appel- 
lans ;  etc.  H.  V.  17.  i :  Nee  Civilis  silens  instruxit  aciem,  locum 
pugnae  testem  virtutis  ciens :  stare  Germanos  Batavosque  super 
vestigia  gloriae,  cineres  ossaque  legionum  calcantes.  H.  V.  22.  i : 
Profectus  Novaesium  Bonnamque  ad  visenda  castra,  quae  hiema- 
turis  legionibus  erigebantur,  navibus  remeabat  disiecto  agmine, 
incuriosis  vigiliis.  G.  3.  i :  Fuisse  apud  eos  et  Herculem  memorant, 
primumque  omnium  virorum  fortium  ituri  in  proelia  canunt.  (It 
is  usually  difficult  to  tell  whether  the  future  participle  has  adjectival 
or  verbal  force.  Such  a  case  as  the  present  has  a  decidedly  verbal 
use.) 


F. 

Special  attention  is  often  devoted  to  the  purely  paren- 
thetical sentences  or  clauses — those  interjected  into  the 
midst  of  another  sentence — because  from  such  clauses 
developed  some  of  the  more  fixed  types  of  connection  such 
as  relative  clauses,  for  example.  Such  parenthetical  sen- 
tences do  not  really  form  a  class  by  themselves.  Neces- 
sarily the  connection  with  the  sentence  in  which  they  stand 
is  expressed  within  themselves,  for  their  nature  as  inter- 
jected clauses  precludes  any  anticipation.  But  the  expres- 
sion of  this  connection  is  very  varied  and  all  of  the  cases 
of  parenthesis  fall  under  one  or  another  of  the  classes  of 
connection  already  discussed;  they  are  illustrated  under 
those  various  classes.  For  convenience  they  are  given  here 
in  summary  with  the  type  of  connection  pointed  out. 

The  parenthesis  contains  a  demonstrative  pronoun  which 
expresses  the  connection :  Ann.  I.  6.  15 :  Quod  postquam 
Sallustius  Crispus  particeps   secretorum    (is   ad  tribunum 

miserat  codicillos)  comperit, monuit  Liviam  etc.     (In 

this  case  the  change  of  tense  to  the  pluperfect  is  an  added 
means  of  connection.)  Ag.  14.  4:  Quaedam  civitates  Cog- 
idumno  regi  donatae  (is  ad  nostram  usque  memoriam  fidis- 
simus  mansit),  vetera  ac  iam  pridem  recepta  populi  Romani 
consuetudine,  ut  haberet  instrumenta  servitutis  et  reges. 


Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause.        151 

The  parenthesis  contains  a  demonstrative  adverb,  either 
adeo  or  tantum:  Ann.  XII.  42.  13:  Inter  quae  praecipuus 
propugnator  eius  VitelHus,  vahdissima  gratia,  aetate  ex- 
trema  (adeo  incertae  sunt  potentium  res)  accusatione  cor- 
ripitur,  deferente  lunio  Lupo  senatore.  H.  III.  57.  i : 
Sed  classem  Misenensem  (tantum  civiHbus  discordiis  etiam 
sing-ulorum  audacia  valet)  Claudius  Faventius  centurio  per 
ignominiam  a  Galba  dimissus  ad  defectionem  traxit,  fictis 
Vespasiani  epistulis  pretium  proditionis  ostentans. 

The  parenthesis  contains  a  demonstrative  word  like 
uterque  or  an  adjective  in  the  comparative  degree  which 
has  the  same  force,  because  it  picks  out  one  of  two  things 
already  mentioned  in  the  other  sentence:  Ann.  VI.  41.  6: 
duos  collis,  quos  barbari  insederant  (minori  Cadra,  alteri 
Davara  nomen  est)  operibus  circumdedit  etc. 

The  parenthesis  contains  a  noun  or  demonstrative  in  the 
dative,  virtually  repeating  a  noun  from  the  other  sentence: 
Ann.  I.  45.  2:  sexagensimum  apud  lapidem  (loco  Vetera 
nomen  est)  hibernantium. 

This  dative  of  reference  may  be  unexpressed  but  plainly 
understood :  Ann.  XV.  36.  i :  Nee  multo  post  omissa  in 
praesens  Achaia  (causae  in  incerto  fuere)  urbem  revisit,  etc. 

The  parenthesis  contains  a  noun  virtually  repeated  from 
the  other  sentence  and  serving  as  subject  of  the  verb  of 
the  parenthesis:  H.  II.  24.  7:  Ad  duodecimum  a  Cremona 
(locus  Castrorum  vocatur)  ferocissimos  auxiliarium  inmi- 
nentibus  viae  lucis  occultos  componit:  etc.  Ag.  22.  2: 
vastatis  usque  ad  Tanaum  (aestuario  nomen  est)  nationi- 
bus.  In  this  case  the  noun  nomen  may  be  a  predicate  nom- 
inative after  est  of  which  the  subject  is  then  understood 
from  the  preceding  noun  Tanaum.  Similar  cases  are:  H. 
IV,  15.  11:  Statimque  accitis  Frisiis  (transrhenana  gens 
est)  duarum  cohortium  hiberna  proxima  occupatum  Oceano 
inrumpit.  Ag.  7.  2 :  Nam  classis  Othoniana  licenter  vaga 
dum  Intimilium  (pars  Liguriae  est)  hostiliter  populatur, 
matrem  Agricolae  in  praediis  suis  interfecit,  etc.     If  the 


152       Connection  Expressed  in  the  Second  Clause. 

subject  of  these  verbs  is  understood,  then  they  fall  in  the 
next  group  rather  than  in  the  present. 

The  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  parenthesis  is  assumed 
from  the  other  sentence :  H.  II.  88.  6 :  Incuriosos  milites — 
vemacula  utebantur  urbanitate — quidam  spoliavere,  abscisis 
furtim  balteis  an  accincti  forent  rogitantes. 

The  parenthesis  may  be  purely  explanatory,  the  connec- 
tion lying  in  the  use  of  words  naturally  associated  with 
some  in  the  other  sentence.     H.  IV.  64.  11:    postulamus  a 

vobis Romanos    omnes    in    finibus    vestris    trucidetis 

(baud  facile  libertas  et  domini  miscentur)  :    etc. 

Such  clauses  very  frequently  in  Tacitus  are  marked  by 
the  use  of  qitippe:  Ann.  XIII.  19.  19:  Qui  laetus  oblatis 
(quippe  inter  Agrippinam  et  Domitiam  infensa  aemulatio 
exercebatur)  Paridem  histrionem,  libertum  et  ipsum  Domi- 
tiae,  impulit  ire  propere  crimenque  atrociter  deferre. 

Such  explanatory  parentheses  may  give  details  of  the 
general  statement  of  the  other  clause,  and  in  this  case  they 
regularly  assume  either  the  subject  or  object  of  their  verb 
from  the  first  sentence:  Ann.  II.  6.  17:  ad  Gallicam  ripam 
latior  et  placidior  adfiuens  verso  cognomento  (Vahalem 
accolae  dicunt),  mox  id  quoque  vocabulum  mutat  Mosa 
flumine.  Ann.  II.  40.  8:  Ille  e  clientibus  duos  (quidam 
milites  fuisse  tradunt)  diligit  etc. 

The  parenthesis  contains  a  substantive  adjective  in  apposi- 
tion with  the  entire  first  sentence :  H.  IV.  12.  9 :  Nee  opi- 
bus  (rarum  in  societate  validiorum)  adtritis  viros  tantum 
armaque  imperio  ministrant,  etc.  (With  this  should  be  com- 
pared the  use  of  a  substantive  adjective  and  a  supine,  very 
rare  in  Tacitus:  H.  IV.  84.  14,  and  H.  V.  6.  10:  minim 
dictu.  H.  III.  56.  I :  prodigiosum  dictu.  Ann.  I.  35.  20 : 
credibile  dictu.) 

The  parenthesis  may  show  a  change  of  person,  marking 
a  personal  explanation  by  the  author,  often  accompanied  by 
a  change  of  tense  from  present  to  future,  or  by  a  change 
of  mode,  as  in  the  cases  in  which  the  so-called  potential 
subjunctive  is  used.    Ann.  IV.  34.  25  :  sed  ipse  divus  lulius, 


Conclusion.  X53 

ipse  divus  Augustus  et  tulere  ista  et  reliquere,  baud  facile 
dixerim,  moderatione  magis  an  sapientia.  Ann.  XIV.  59, 
12:  cuius  aspectu  (ipsa  principis  verba  referam)  cur,  inquit 

Nero (text  incomplete.) 

Finally,  the  parentbesis  contains  a  verb  by  itself,  inter- 
jected to  mark  the  personal  attitude  of  the  author:  D.  37. 
25 :  Non,  opinor,  Demosthenem  orationes  inlustrant,  quas 
adversus  tutores  suos  composuit,  etc.  H.  II.  76,  20 :  Splen- 
didior  origine  quam  nos  sumus,  fateor,  sed  et  Nero  nobili- 
tate  natalium  Vitellium  anteibat. 


CONCLUSION. 

The  results  of  the  foregoing  investigation  of  sentence 
connection  in  Tacitus  are  several.  First,  Tacitus  does  not 
at  all  confine  himself  to  the  use  of  conjunctions  for  express- 
ing the  relation  of  one  sentence  to  another.  Second,  the 
means  which  he  does  employ  are  very  numerous  and  varied, 
and  in  a  single  case  of  two  consecutive  sentences  several 
means  of  expressing  the  relation  between  them  are  often 
used.  Third,  when  the  sentence  connection  is,  for  some 
reason,  perfectly  obvious,  it  is  often  not  expressed  by  any 
specific  means.  Fourth,  the  distinction  between  a  subor- 
dinate and  an  independent  sentence  is  not  sharply  marked. 
Subordination  of  one  sentence  to  another  in  meaning  does 
not  coincide  with  the  regularly  recognized  type  of  gram- 
matical subordination,  but  may  be  expressed  also  by  numer- 
ous other  means.  Fifth,  a  particular  means  of  expressing 
the  connection  between  two  consecutive  sentences  may 
stand  in  either  the  first  or  second  and  is  occasionally  divided 
between  the  two.  When  it  stands  in  the  first  there  is  usually 
some  additional  element  of  connection  in  the  second. 

Of  the  means  used  by  Tacitus  to  indicate  the  connection 
between  consecutive  sentences,  the  most  frequent  are  repeti- 
tion, contrast,  the  use  of  conjunctions  and  of  adverbs,  the 


154  Conclusion. 

use  of  words  whose  meaning  is  incomplete  except  by  refer- 
ence to  either  the  preceding  or  the  following  sentence,  func- 
tional changes  in  the  verb,  anticipation  by  the  use  of  a 
projective  word  or  by  the  use  of  a  very  general  phrase  or 
of  a  negative  statement  when  a  positive  is  to  be  expected. 
All  of  these  methods  have  many  different  types.  The  use 
of  conjunctions  and  adverbs  does  not  appear  to  be  funda- 
mental but  usually  accompanies  or  makes  use  of  other  more 
fundamental  means.  In  order  to  make  clear  the  way  in 
which  Tacitus  ordinarily  makes  use  of  these  various  means 
of  connection,  one  or  two  paragraphs  should  be  analyzed 
throughout. 

Ann.  I.  21 :  Horum  adventu  redintegratur  seditio,  et  vagi 
circumiecta  populabantur.  Blaesiis  paucos,  maxime  praeda 
onustos,  ad  terrorem  ceterorum  adfici  verberibus,  claudi 
car  cere  iubet;  nam  etiam  turn  legato  a  centnrionibus  et 
Optimo  quoqiie  manipularium  parebatur.  I  Hi  obniti  trahen- 
tibus,  prensare  circumstantium  genua,  ciere  modo  nomina 
singidorum,  modo  centuriam  quisque  cuius  manipularis  erat, 
cohortem,  legionem,  eadem  omnibus  inminere  clamitantes. 
Simul  probra  in  legatum  cumulant,  caelum  ac  deos  obtes- 
tantur,  nihil  reliqui  faciunt  quo  minus  invidiam  misericor- 
diam  metum  et  iras  permoverent.  Adcurritur  ab  universis, 
et  carcere  effracto  solvunt  vincula  desertoresque  ac  rerum 
capitalium  damnatos  sibi  iam  miscent. 

The  connection  with  the  preceding  chapter  is  at  once 
established  by  the  demonstrative  horum,  a  type  of  repeti- 
tion; this  is  supported  by  the  use  of  redintegratur  which 
implies  a  description  of  the  former  seditious  actions,  and 
by  reditio  which  is  also  virtually  a  repetition  from  the  pre- 
ceding chapter.  The  sentence  as  a  whole  vaguely  antici- 
pates some  details  to  follow,  because  alone  it  is  of  such  a 
general  character.  These  details  begin  in  the  next  clause 
which  is  further  connected  by  an  et  and  by  the  implied  repe- 
tition of  the  subject  of  populabantur  with  which  vagi 
agrees.    Blaesus,  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  sentence,  is 


Conclusion.  155 

repeated  from  the  second  paragraph  preceding  and  here 
stands  in  contrast  to  the  subject  of  populabantur.  The 
change  of  mode  in  adfici  and  claiidi  mark  their  connection 
with  the  sentence  in  which  they  stand ;  the  relation  between 
them  is  made  clear  partly  by  the  rapidity  or  practical  coin- 
cidence of  the  two  actions  and  partly  by  their  common 
mode  in  contrast  to  that  of  the  iubet.  The  conjunction  nam 
makes  clear  the  relation  of  the  next  sentence  which  might 
not  be  altogether  clear  without  it,  although  the  change  of 
tense  in  parehatiir  and  the  meaning  of  the  clause  indicate 
that  it  is  explanatory.  This  connection  is  further  supported 
by  the  adverb  of  time  and  by  the  legato  which  virtually 
repeats  Blaesus.  Another  case  of  the  demonstrative  forms 
the  next  connection  and  in  the  meaning  of  trahentibus  there 
is  an  implied  repetition  from  the  adfici  vulneribus,  claudi 
carcere  of  the  preceding  sentence.  The  infinitives  are  his- 
torical and  the  connection  between  them  is  clear  from  the 
rapidity  of  the  narrative.  The  relation  of  the  inminere  to 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  is  not  clear  until  the  clamitantes  is 
read :  then  the  change  of  mode  is  plain  and  the  connection 
also.  The  use  of  the  participle  in  clamitantes  is  quite  sufii- 
cient  to  connect  it  with  the  rest.  Simul,  the  first  word  in 
the  following  sentence,  is  one  of  the  adverbs  incomplete 
in  itself  which  of  necessity  refers  to  something  that  has 
preceded  or  is  to  follow.  Here,  it  refers  to  the  last  sentence 
and  establishes  the  connection  with  it.  Rapidity  of  narra- 
tive is  again  taken  advantage  of  in  this  sentence  to  con- 
nect the  three  verbs  in  the  present  indicative,  and  the  rela- 
tion of  the  permoverent  clause  to  the  faciunt  is  made  clear 
by  the  change  of  mode  and  by  the  use  of  the  relative, 
another  type  of  repetition.  Adcurritur  is  one  of  the  verbs 
whose  meaning  is  incomplete  without  reference  to  the  pre- 
ceding sentence  and  this  fact  accounts  for  the  connection : 
that  to  which  they  all  run  up,  is  the  scene  already  described. 
The  coordinating  conjunction  et  is  employed  to  connect 
the  second  part  of  this  sentence  with  the  first,  but  here 
again  the  conjunction  is  not  necessary,  for  the  narrative  is 


156  Conclusion. 

sufficiently  rapid  to  make  the  connection  clear  and  the 
assumed  subject  of  solvunt  taken  from  the  universis  is  a 
further  guide.  The  participial  use  in  the  ablative  absolute, 
carcere  effracto,  is  the  next  connective  and  this  is  followed 
by  another  conjunction,  -que,  of  which  the  same  thing  is 
true  that  was  said  of  the  preceding  et. 

H.  IV.  7p;  Nee  in  longum  quies  militi  data.  Orabant 
auxilium  Aggrippinenses  offerebantque  uxorem  ac  sororem 
Ciz'ilis  et  filiam  Classici,  relicta  sibi  pignora  societatis. 
Atque  interim  disperses  in  domibus  Germanos  trucidaverant ; 
unde  metus  et  iustae  preces  invocantium,  antequam  hostes 
reparatis  viribus  ad  spent  vel  ad  ultionem  accingerentur. 
Namque  et  Civilis  illuc  intenderat,  non  invalidus  flagran- 
tissima  coJiortium  suarum  integra,  quae  ex  Chaucis  Frisiis- 
que  composita  Tolbiaci  in  finibus  Agrippinensium  agebat: 
sed  tristis  nuntiiis  avertit,  deletam  cohortem  dolo  Agrippi- 
nensium, qui  largis  epulis  vinoque  sopitos  Germanos,  clausis 
forihiis,  igne  iniecto  cremavere;  simul  Cerialis  propero 
agmine  subvenit.  Circumsteterat  Civilem  et  alius  metus, 
ne  quarta  decuma  legio  adiuncta  Britannica  classe  adflic- 
taret  Batavos,  qua  Oceano  ambiuntur.  Sed  legionem  fer- 
restri  itinere  Fabius  Priscus  legatus  in  Nervios  Tungrosque 
duxit,  eaeque  civitates  in  deditionem  acceptae:  classem 
ultro  Canninefates  adgressi  sunt  maiorque  pars  navium 
depressa  aut  capta.  Et  Nerviorum  multitudineni,  sponte 
commotam  ut  pro  Romanis  belluni  capesseret,  idem  Can- 
ninefates fudere.  Classicus  quoque  adversus  equites  Novae- 
sium  a  Ceriale  praemissos  secundum  proelium  fecit:  quae 
modica,  sed  crebra  damna  famam  victoriae  nuper  partae 
lacerabant. 

The  first  thing  noticeable  in  this  paragraph,  as  compared 
to  the  one  from  the  Annals,  is  that  there  is  much  greater 
use  of  conjunctions:  the  number  is  decidedly  large,  but 
it  will  be  seen  that  several  of  them  are  supplementary  rather 
than  essential  means  of  connecting  the  sentences.  In 
the  first  sentence  of  all  it  is  a  conjunction  nee  which  fur- 


Conclusion.  157 

nishes  the  connection  with  the  preceding  paragraph,  but 
had  non  been  used,  the  relation  of  this  sentence  to  what 
went  before  would  be  equally  clear.  The  last  paragraph  told 
of  the  completion  of  a  victory  over  the  enemy,  and  although 
the  term  quies  is  not  used  nor  anything  said  about  the  rest 
following  the  victory,  the  idea  of  the  completion  of  the 
fighting  makes  it  have  practically  the  same  effect  as  actual 
repetition.  This  is  strengthened  by  the  use  of  the  word 
militi  which  is  virtually  repetition.  The  sentence  as  a  whole 
is  clearly  anticipatory:  the  vague  statement  and  especially 
the  use  of  the  negative  plainly  suggests  an  explanation  to 
follow.  The  second  sentence,  therefore,  has  no  formally 
expressed  connection.  The  -que  which  joins  the  two  verbs 
of  this  second  sentence  is  here  a  real  means  of  connection 
and  the  only  one  beyond  the  continuance  of  the  same  sub- 
ject; the  relicta  in  the  final  clause  is  little  more  than  an 
adjective  but  in  so  far  as  it  has  verbal  force  the  change 
to  a  participle  is  the  connecting  element.  In  the  next  sen- 
tence the  atque  is  quite  superfluous :  the  interim  too, 
although,  like  the  conjunction,  it  serves  to  add  precision, 
really  adds  little  to  the  connection  expressed  by  the  change 
of  tense  in  tnicidaverant.  The  relative  unde  furnishes  the 
formal  connection  in  the  sentence  that  follows  and  later  a 
second  clause  is  connected  by  a  change  of  mode  and  ante- 
quam;  an  ablative  absolute  inserted  in  this  clause  illustrates 
participial  connection.  The  heaping  up  of  words  to  express 
sentence  relation  is  well  illustrated  in  the  words  that  follow. 
The  conjunction  namqiie,  the  et  meaning  "also,"  the  repe- 
tition of  Civilis,  the  demonstrative  illuc  and  the  change  of 
tense  in  intenderat,  to  denote  an  explanation,  all  furnish 
elements  to  the  connection.  An  ablative  absolute,  a  relative 
and  a  change  in  tense  in  agebat  are  the  means  employed 
in  the  rest  of  this  sentence  as  far  as  the  colon.  Then 
the  adversative  sed  marks  a  relation  which  the  sense  of 
the  word  avertit,  in  contrast  with  what  has  preceded  and 
assuming  an  object  also  from  the  first  part  of  the  sentence, 
really  expresses   without  the  conjunction.     Two   ablative 


158  Conclusion. 

absolutes  are  here  connected  by  the  rapidity  or  coincidence 
of  the  actions  they  describe,  and  the  final  clause  of  the  sen- 
tence depends  largely  on  the  incomplete  meaning  of  sub- 
venit,  reinforced  by  the  adverb  siniiil,  itself  incomplete  in 
meaning  except  as  it  refers  to  the  previous  clause.  Change 
to  the  pluperfect  tense,  repetition  in  Civilem,  et,  meaning 
"also,"  and  alius  by  its  incompleteness  when  it  stands  alone, 
all  contribute  to  make  the  relation  of  the  next  sentence 
clear.  The  alius  metus  is  also  anticipatory  by  virtue  of  its 
vagueness  so  that  the  change  of  mode  and  the  particle  ne 
only  determine  the  particular  kind  of  clause  to  follow :  its 
general  nature  was  known  already.  A  relative  qua  and 
the  assumed  subject  of  the  verb  ambitmtur  are  the  last 
expressed  connections  in  the  sentence.  The  following  sed 
is  largely  superfluous :  legionem  is  repetition  and  the  sense 
of  the  sentence  furnishes  the  adversative  idea  without  the 
sed.  The  same  is  true  of  the  -que  in  eaeque.  The  demon- 
strative is  sufficient.  Classem  is  repetition  and  in  contrast 
with  legionem;  later  on  in  the  sentence  another  conjunc- 
tion, -que,  is  used  when  really  the  maior  pars  navium  is 
virtually  repetition  from  the  classem  and  the  -que  is  there- 
fore unnecessary  except  from  a  stylistic  point  of  view,  to 
avoid  the  monotony  of  many  short  sentences.  This  can 
also  be  said  of  the  following  et:  the  demonstrative  idem  and 
the  repetition  of  Canninefates  are  quite  sufficient  to  express 
the  relationship  of  the  sentences.  The  remaining  means 
employed  in  the  paragraph  are  a  participle,  a  change  to  the 
subjunctive  mode  with  an  ut;  the  repetition  of  Classicus 
plus  a  quoque;  a  participle ;  a  relative ;  a  participle. 

These  two  chapters,  chosen  at  random,  are  sufficient  to 
show  the  variety  of  the  sentence  connections  in  Tacitus. 
The  history  of  these  should  be  traced  back  as  far  as  pos- 
sible in  earlier  and  less  rhetorical  Latin  to  obtain  an  indica- 
tion as  to  their  origin  and  as  to  how  fundamental  each  one 
is,  and  to  what  extent  available  for  and  actually  used  by 
the  other  writers  of  Latin. 


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